ASM Metals HandBook Vol. 8 - Mechanical Testing and Evaluation
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34. H.S. Avery, An Analysis of the Rubber Wheel Abrasion Test, Wear of Materials, A.W. Ruff and K.C.
Ludema, Ed., ASME, 1981, p 367–378
35. “Standard Practice for Conducting Dry Sand/Rubber Wheel Abrasion Tests,” G 65, Wear and Erosion:
Metal Corrosion, Vol 03.02, ASTM
36. A.N.J. Stevenson and I.M. Hutchings, Development of the Dry Sand/Rubber Wheel Abrasion Test,
Wear, Vol 195, 1996, p 232–240
37. G.J. Gore and J.D. Gates, Effect of Hardness on Three Different Forms of Wear, Wear, Vol 203–204,
1997, p 544–563
38. “Standard Practice for Conducting Wet Sand/Rubber Wheel Abrasion Tests,” G 105, Wear and
Erosion: Metal Corrosion, Vol 03.02, ASTM
39. E. Fundal, Application of the LABORMAT Lapping and Micro Wear Testing, Fundal Consulting, Borup,
Denmark
40. F. Borik, “Rubber Wheel Abrasion Test,” SAE Paper 700687, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1970
41. T. Yamamoto, M. Olsson, and S. Hogmark, Three-body Abrasive Wear of Ceramic Materials, Wear,
Vol 174, 1994, p 21–31
42. F.J. Friedersdorf and G.R. Holcomb, Pin-on-Disk Corrosion-Wear Test, J. Test. Eval., Vol 26, 1998, p
352–357
43. “Standard Guide for Determining Synergism between Wear and Corrosion,” G 119, Wear and Erosion:
Metal Corrosion, Vol 03.02, ASTM
44. F. Borik and D.L. Sponseller, Gouging Abrasion Test for Materials Used in Ore and Rock Crushing,
Part I: Description of the Test, J. Mater., Vol 6, 1971, p 576–589
45. F. Borik and W.G. Scholz, Gouging Abrasion Test for Material Used in Ore and Rock Crushing, Part II:
Effect of Metallurgical Variables on Gouging Wear, J. Mater., Vol 6, 1971, p 590–605
46. I.R. Sare and W.B. Hall, The Determination of Gouging Abrasion by Jaw Crusher Tests, Conference on
Lubrication, Friction, and Wear in Engineering, 1–5 Dec 1980, (Melbourne, Australia), Inst. Eng.,
Barton, A.C.T., Australia, 1982, p 94–98
47. “Standard Practice for Jaw Crusher Gouging Abrasion Test,” G 81, Wear and Erosion: Metal
Corrosion, Vol 03.02, ASTM
48. I.R. Sare and A.G. Constantine, Design and Analysis of Jaw Crusher Gouging Abrasion Tests, J. Test.
Eval., Vol 19, 1991, p 115–122 (see also Discussion: F.W. Wood, J. Test. Eval., Vol 19, 1991, p 408–
409. Author's closure: I.R. Sare and A.G. Constantine, J. Test. Eval., Vol 19, 1991, p 410–412
49. J.A. Hawk, R.D. Wilson, J.H. Tylczak, and Ö.N. Doğan, Laboratory Wear Tests: Investigation of Test
Methods and Alloy Correlation, Wear, Vol 225–229, 1999, p 1031–1042
50. “Standard Test Method for Conducting Erosion Tests by Solid Particle Impingement Using Gas Jets,” G
76, Wear and Erosion: Metal Corrosion, Vol 03.02, ASTM
51. I.M. Hutchings, R.E. Winter, and J.E. Field, Solid Particle Erosion of Metals: The Removal of Surface
Material by Spherical Projectiles, Proc. R. Soc. (London) A, Vol 348, 1976, p 379–392
52. A.V. Levy, Solid Particle Erosion and Erosion-Corrosion of Materials, ASM International, 1995, p 11–
33
53. R.M. Anderson, T.A. Adler, and J.A. Hawk, Scale of Microstructure Effects on Impact Resistance of
Al
2
O
3
, Wear, Vol 162–164, 1993, p 1073–1080
54. T.A. Adler and Ö.N. Doğan, Erosive Wear and Impact Damage of High Chromium White Cast Irons,
Wear, Vol 225–229, 1999, p 174–180
55. J. Stringer, Practical Experience with Wastage at Elevated Temperatures in Coal Combustion Systems,
Wear, Vol 186–187, 1995, p 11–27
56. J.Y. Tu, C.A.J. Fletcher, M. Behnia, J.A. Reizes, D. Owens, and P. Jones, Prediction of Flow and
Erosion in Power Utility Boilers and Comparison with Measurement, J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power, Vol
119, 1997, p 709–716
57. N.J. Simms, J.E. Oakey, D.J. Stephenson, P.J. Smith, and J.R. Nicholls, Erosion-Corrosion Modelling
of Gas Turbine Materials for Coal-Fired Combined Cycle Power Generation, Wear, Vol 186–187, 1995,
p 247–255
58. F.C. Bond, Lab Equipment and Tests Help Predict Metal Consumption in Crushing and Grinding, Eng.
Min. J., Vol 165, 1964, p 169–175
59. F.C. Bond, The Third Theory of Comminution, Min. Eng., Vol 4, 1952, p 484–494
60. F.C. Bond, New Ideas Clarify Grinding Principles, Chem. Eng., Vol 69, 1962, p 103–108
61. R.D. Wilson and J.A. Hawk, Impeller Wear Impact-Abrasive Wear Test, Wear, Vol 225–229, 1999, p
1248–1257
62. “Standard Test Method for Determination of Slurry Abrasivity (Miller Number) and Slurry Abrasion
Response of Materials (SAR Number),” G 75, Wear and Erosion: Metal Corrosion, Vol 03. 02, ASTM
63. L.D.A. Jackson, Controlling Abrasion in Slow Slurry Pipeline Systems, Can. Min. J., Vol 95, 1974, p
42
64. W. Tsai, J.A.C. Humphrey, I. Cornet, and A.V. Levy, “Experimental Measurement of Accelerated
Erosion in a Slurry Pot Tester,” Wear, Vol 68, 1981, p 289–303
65. B.W. Madsen, Measurements of Wear and Corrosion Rates Using a Novel Slurry Wear Test, Mater.
Perform., Vol 26, 1987, p 21–28
66. J. Postlethwaite, B.J. Brady, M.W. Hawrylak, and E.B. Tinker, Effects of Corrosion on the Wear
Patterns in Horizontal Slurry Pipelines, Corrosion, Vol 34, 1978, p 245–250
67. A. Elkholy, Prediction of Abrasive Wear for Slurry Pump Materials, Wear, Vol 84, 1983, p 39–49
68. H. Hocke and H.N. Wilkinson, Testing Abrasion Resistance of Slurry Pipeline Materials, Tribol. Int.,
Vol 5, 1978, p 289–294
69. B.W. Madsen, A Study of Parameters Using a New Constant-Wear-Rate Slurry Test, Wear of Materials,
K.C. Ludema, Ed., ASME, 1985, p 345–354
70. B.W. Madsen and R. Blickensderfer, A New Flow-Through Slurry Erosion Wear Test, Slurry Erosion:
Uses, Applications, and Test Methods, STP 946, J.E. Miller and F.E. Schmidt, Jr., Ed., ASTM 1987, p
169–184
71. B.W. Madsen, Corrosive Wear, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology, Vol 18, ASM Handbook,
ASM International, 1992, p 271–279
72. J.E. Miller, Slurry Erosion, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology ,Vol 18, ASM Handbook, ASM
International, 1992, p 233–235
73. A. Kassman, S. Jacobsson, L. Erickson, P. Hedenqvist, and M. Olsson, A New Test Method for the
Intrinsic Abrasion Resistance of Thin Coatings, Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol 50, 1991, p 75–84
74. G. Nothnagel, Wear Resistance Determination of Coatings from Cross-Section Measurements of Ball-
Ground Craters, Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol 57, 1993, p 151–154
75. P. Hedenqvist, M. Bromark, M. Olsson, S. Hogmark, and E. Bergmann, Mechanical and Tribological
Characterization of Low Temperature Deposited PVD TiN Coatings, Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol 63,
1994, p 115–122
76. K.L. Rutherford and I.M. Hutchins, A Micro-Abrasive Wear Test, with Particular Application to Coated
Systems, Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol 79, 1996, p 231–239
77. K.L. Rutherford and I.M. Hutchings, Micro-Scale Abrasive Wear Testing of PVD Coatings on Curved
Surfaces, Tribology Letters, Vol 2, 1996, p 1–11
78. K.L. Rutherford, R.I. Trezona, A.C. Ramamurthy, and I.M. Hutchings, The Abrasive and Erosive Wear
of Polymeric Paint Films, Wear, Vol 203–204, 1997, p 325–334
79. M. Choudhury and I.M. Hutchings, The Effect of Irradiation and Ageing on the Abrasive Wear
Resistance of Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene, Wear, Vol 203–204, 1997, p 335–340
Abrasive Wear Testing
Jeffrey A. Hawk, U.S. Department of Energy, Albany Research Center
Summary and Conclusions
This discussion on abrasive wear testing attempts to show that both standard (ASTM) and nonstandard
laboratory abrasive wear tests are available. All these wear tests have similarities in terms of application
simulation, acceleration, specimen preparation, test control, wear measurement, and data reporting (Ref 5, 6).
The most important fact to keep in mind is that in any laboratory wear test, application simulation of the wear
mechanisms is of utmost importance. It is critical to run a test where the operative wear mechanisms in the
laboratory are the ones observed in the field. It is also important to make sure that all equipment variables are
noted and controlled so that any differences in the wear behavior of a suite of materials are due to the physical
and mechanical differences in the materials and not to variations in the sample preparation, test procedures, or
operation of the test equipment.
In running abrasive wear tests for the first time, or in the investigation of new classes of materials, it is
important to perform multiple tests and generate wear curves of volume loss versus sliding distance. Doing this
has several advantages. First, any nonlinearities will show up, thus providing a guide of how the test should be
run. Second, the steady state wear behavior will yield more accurate wear rates. In many cases, this procedure
will subsequently verify the use of single test wear measurements for obtaining wear rates (as in the pin-on-
drum).
References cited in this section
5. H. Czichos, A Systems Approach to the Science and Technology of Friction, Lubrication and Wear,
Elsevier Science Publishers BV, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1978
6. R.G. Bayer, Wear Testing, Mechanical Testing, Vol 8, Metals Handbook, 9
th
ed., ASM International,
1985, p 601–608
Abrasive Wear Testing
Jeffrey A. Hawk, U.S. Department of Energy, Albany Research Center
References
1. P.A. Swanson, Comparison of Laboratory and Field Abrasion Tests, Wear of Materials, K.C. Ludema,
Ed., ASME, 1985, p 519–525.
2. M.A. Moore, Laboratory Simulation Testing for Service Abrasive Wear Environments, Wear of
Materials: Volume II, KC. Ludema, Ed., ASME, 1987, p 673–687
3. P.A. Swanson, Comparison of Laboratory Abrasion Tests and Field Tests, Tribology: Wear Test
Selection for Design and Application, STP 1199, A.W. Ruff and R.G. Bayer, Ed., ASTM, 1993, p 80–
99
4. J.H. Tylczak, J.A. Hawk, and R.D. Wilson, A Comparison of Laboratory Abrasion and Field Wear
Results, Wear, Vol 225–229, 1999, p 1059–1069
5. H. Czichos, A Systems Approach to the Science and Technology of Friction, Lubrication and Wear,
Elsevier Science Publishers BV, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1978
6. R.G. Bayer, Wear Testing, Mechanical Testing, Vol 8, Metals Handbook, 9
th
ed., ASM International,
1985, p 601–608
7. P.J. Mutton, Abrasion Resistant Materials: Volume 1, AMIRA, Melbourne, Australia, 1988, p 5–17
8. “Wear and Erosion: Metal Corrosion,” Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM
9. S. Jacobsson, M. Olsson, P. Hedenqvist, and O. Vingsbo, Scratch Testing, Friction, Lubrication, and
Wear Technology, Vol 18, ASM Handbook, ASM International, 1992, p 430–437
10. K.-H. Zum Gahr, Microstructure and Wear of Materials, Elsevier Science Publishers BV, Amsterdam,
Netherlands, 1987, p 132–350
11. E. Rabinowicz, Friction and Wear of Materials, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995, p 191–238
12. Ö.N. Doğan and J.A. Hawk, Effect of Carbide Orientation on Abrasion of High Cr White Cast Iron,
Wear, Vol 189, 1995, p 136–142
13. F. Robin, The Wear of Steels by Abrasives, Rev. Metall. (Paris), Vol 8, 1911, p 47–84 (in French)
14. M.M. Khruschov, Resistance of Metals to Wear by Abrasion as Related to Hardness, Proc. Conf. Lub.
Wear, Inst. Mech. Eng., London, UK, 1957, 1957, p 655–659
15. R.C.D. Richardson, The Wear of Metals by Hard Abrasives, Wear, Vol 10, 1967, p 291–309
16. G.K. Nathan and W.J.D. Jones, The Empirical Relationship between Abrasive Wear and the Applied
Conditions, Wear, Vol 9, 1966, p 300–309
17. M.M. Kruschov, Principles of Abrasive Wear, Wear, Vol 28, 1974, p 69–88
18. J. Larsen-Basse, Influence of Grit Size on the Groove Formation during Sliding Abrasion, Wear, Vol
11, 1968, p 213–222
19. J. Muscara and M.J. Sinnot, Construction and Evaluation of a Versatile Abrasive Wear Testing
Apparatus, Metall. Eng. Q., Vol 12, 1972, p 21–32
20. P.J. Mutton, “High Stress Abrasion Testing of Wear Resistant Steels and Cast Irons,” Laboratory Report
MRL/PM3/78/001, Broken Hill Proprietary Co., Melbourne Res. Lab., Clayton, Victoria, Australia, Aug
1978, 49 pages
21. C. Allen, B.E. Protheroe, and A. Ball, the Selection of Abrasion-Corrosion-Resistant Materials for
Gold-Mining Equipment, S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall., Vol 81, 1981, p 289–297
22. H. Berns and A. Fischer, Wear Resistance of Fe-Cr-C Hard Surfacing with Additions of B, Ti, and Mn,
Wear of Mater., K.C. Ludema, Ed., ASME, 1983, p 298–302
23. R. Blickensderfer and G. Laird III, A Pin-on-Drum Abrasive Wear Test And Comparison to other Pin
Tests, J. Test. Eval., Vol 16, 1988, p 516–526
24. H. Sin, N. Saka, and N.P. Suh, Abrasive Wear Mechanisms and the Grit Size Effect, Wear, Vol 55,
1979, p 163–190
25. N. Axén and S. Jacobsson, A Model for the Abrasive Wear Resistance of Multiphase Materials, Wear,
Vol 174, 1994, p 187–199
26. M.A. Moore and F.S. King, Abrasive Wear of Brittle Materials, Wear, Vol 60, 1980, p 123–140
27. “Standard Test Method for Pin Abrasion Testing,” G 132, Wear and Erosion: Metal Corrosion, Vol
03.02, ASTM
28. R. Blickensderfer, J.H. Tylczak, and B.W. Madsen, “Laboratory Wear Testing Capabilities of the
Bureau of Mines,” Bureau of Mines IC 9001, 1985, 36 pages
29. Ö.N. Doğan, J.A. Hawk, J.H. Tylczak, R.S. Wilson, and R.D. Govier, Wear of TiC Reinforced Metal
Matrix Composites, Wear, Vol 225–229, 1999, p 758–769
30. A.M. Häger and M. Davies, Short-Fibre Reinforced High-Temperature Resistant Polymers for a Wide
Field of Tribological Applications, Advances in Composite Tribology, Elsevier Science Publishers BV,
Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1973, p 115–116
31. J.A. Hawk and D.E. Alman, Abrasive Wear Behavior of NiAl and NiAl-TiB
2
Composites, Wear, Vol
225–229, 1999, p 544–556
32. Ö.N. Doğan, J.A. Hawk, and G. Laird II, Solidification Structure and Abrasion Resistance of High Cr
White Irons, Metall. Mater. Trans. A, Vol 28, 1997, p 1315–1328
33. C.P. Doğan and J.A. Hawk, Role of Composition and Microstructure in the Abrasive Wear of High-
Alumina Ceramics, Wear, Vol 225–229, 1999, p 1050–1058
34. H.S. Avery, An Analysis of the Rubber Wheel Abrasion Test, Wear of Materials, A.W. Ruff and K.C.
Ludema, Ed., ASME, 1981, p 367–378
35. “Standard Practice for Conducting Dry Sand/Rubber Wheel Abrasion Tests,” G 65, Wear and Erosion:
Metal Corrosion, Vol 03.02, ASTM
36. A.N.J. Stevenson and I.M. Hutchings, Development of the Dry Sand/Rubber Wheel Abrasion Test,
Wear, Vol 195, 1996, p 232–240
37. G.J. Gore and J.D. Gates, Effect of Hardness on Three Different Forms of Wear, Wear, Vol 203–204,
1997, p 544–563
38. “Standard Practice for Conducting Wet Sand/Rubber Wheel Abrasion Tests,” G 105, Wear and
Erosion: Metal Corrosion, Vol 03.02, ASTM
39. E. Fundal, Application of the LABORMAT Lapping and Micro Wear Testing, Fundal Consulting, Borup,
Denmark
40. F. Borik, “Rubber Wheel Abrasion Test,” SAE Paper 700687, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1970
41. T. Yamamoto, M. Olsson, and S. Hogmark, Three-body Abrasive Wear of Ceramic Materials, Wear,
Vol 174, 1994, p 21–31
42. F.J. Friedersdorf and G.R. Holcomb, Pin-on-Disk Corrosion-Wear Test, J. Test. Eval., Vol 26, 1998, p
352–357
43. “Standard Guide for Determining Synergism between Wear and Corrosion,” G 119, Wear and Erosion:
Metal Corrosion, Vol 03.02, ASTM
44. F. Borik and D.L. Sponseller, Gouging Abrasion Test for Materials Used in Ore and Rock Crushing,
Part I: Description of the Test, J. Mater., Vol 6, 1971, p 576–589
45. F. Borik and W.G. Scholz, Gouging Abrasion Test for Material Used in Ore and Rock Crushing, Part II:
Effect of Metallurgical Variables on Gouging Wear, J. Mater., Vol 6, 1971, p 590–605
46. I.R. Sare and W.B. Hall, The Determination of Gouging Abrasion by Jaw Crusher Tests, Conference on
Lubrication, Friction, and Wear in Engineering, 1–5 Dec 1980, (Melbourne, Australia), Inst. Eng.,
Barton, A.C.T., Australia, 1982, p 94–98
47. “Standard Practice for Jaw Crusher Gouging Abrasion Test,” G 81, Wear and Erosion: Metal
Corrosion, Vol 03.02, ASTM
48. I.R. Sare and A.G. Constantine, Design and Analysis of Jaw Crusher Gouging Abrasion Tests, J. Test.
Eval., Vol 19, 1991, p 115–122 (see also Discussion: F.W. Wood, J. Test. Eval., Vol 19, 1991, p 408–
409. Author's closure: I.R. Sare and A.G. Constantine, J. Test. Eval., Vol 19, 1991, p 410–412
49. J.A. Hawk, R.D. Wilson, J.H. Tylczak, and Ö.N. Doğan, Laboratory Wear Tests: Investigation of Test
Methods and Alloy Correlation, Wear, Vol 225–229, 1999, p 1031–1042
50. “Standard Test Method for Conducting Erosion Tests by Solid Particle Impingement Using Gas Jets,” G
76, Wear and Erosion: Metal Corrosion, Vol 03.02, ASTM
51. I.M. Hutchings, R.E. Winter, and J.E. Field, Solid Particle Erosion of Metals: The Removal of Surface
Material by Spherical Projectiles, Proc. R. Soc. (London) A, Vol 348, 1976, p 379–392
52. A.V. Levy, Solid Particle Erosion and Erosion-Corrosion of Materials, ASM International, 1995, p 11–
33
53. R.M. Anderson, T.A. Adler, and J.A. Hawk, Scale of Microstructure Effects on Impact Resistance of
Al
2
O
3
, Wear, Vol 162–164, 1993, p 1073–1080
54. T.A. Adler and Ö.N. Doğan, Erosive Wear and Impact Damage of High Chromium White Cast Irons,
Wear, Vol 225–229, 1999, p 174–180
55. J. Stringer, Practical Experience with Wastage at Elevated Temperatures in Coal Combustion Systems,
Wear, Vol 186–187, 1995, p 11–27
56. J.Y. Tu, C.A.J. Fletcher, M. Behnia, J.A. Reizes, D. Owens, and P. Jones, Prediction of Flow and
Erosion in Power Utility Boilers and Comparison with Measurement, J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power, Vol
119, 1997, p 709–716
57. N.J. Simms, J.E. Oakey, D.J. Stephenson, P.J. Smith, and J.R. Nicholls, Erosion-Corrosion Modelling
of Gas Turbine Materials for Coal-Fired Combined Cycle Power Generation, Wear, Vol 186–187, 1995,
p 247–255
58. F.C. Bond, Lab Equipment and Tests Help Predict Metal Consumption in Crushing and Grinding, Eng.
Min. J., Vol 165, 1964, p 169–175
59. F.C. Bond, The Third Theory of Comminution, Min. Eng., Vol 4, 1952, p 484–494
60. F.C. Bond, New Ideas Clarify Grinding Principles, Chem. Eng., Vol 69, 1962, p 103–108
61. R.D. Wilson and J.A. Hawk, Impeller Wear Impact-Abrasive Wear Test, Wear, Vol 225–229, 1999, p
1248–1257
62. “Standard Test Method for Determination of Slurry Abrasivity (Miller Number) and Slurry Abrasion
Response of Materials (SAR Number),” G 75, Wear and Erosion: Metal Corrosion, Vol 03. 02, ASTM
63. L.D.A. Jackson, Controlling Abrasion in Slow Slurry Pipeline Systems, Can. Min. J., Vol 95, 1974, p
42
64. W. Tsai, J.A.C. Humphrey, I. Cornet, and A.V. Levy, “Experimental Measurement of Accelerated
Erosion in a Slurry Pot Tester,” Wear, Vol 68, 1981, p 289–303
65. B.W. Madsen, Measurements of Wear and Corrosion Rates Using a Novel Slurry Wear Test, Mater.
Perform., Vol 26, 1987, p 21–28
66. J. Postlethwaite, B.J. Brady, M.W. Hawrylak, and E.B. Tinker, Effects of Corrosion on the Wear
Patterns in Horizontal Slurry Pipelines, Corrosion, Vol 34, 1978, p 245–250
67. A. Elkholy, Prediction of Abrasive Wear for Slurry Pump Materials, Wear, Vol 84, 1983, p 39–49
68. H. Hocke and H.N. Wilkinson, Testing Abrasion Resistance of Slurry Pipeline Materials, Tribol. Int.,
Vol 5, 1978, p 289–294
69. B.W. Madsen, A Study of Parameters Using a New Constant-Wear-Rate Slurry Test, Wear of Materials,
K.C. Ludema, Ed., ASME, 1985, p 345–354
70. B.W. Madsen and R. Blickensderfer, A New Flow-Through Slurry Erosion Wear Test, Slurry Erosion:
Uses, Applications, and Test Methods, STP 946, J.E. Miller and F.E. Schmidt, Jr., Ed., ASTM 1987, p
169–184
71. B.W. Madsen, Corrosive Wear, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology, Vol 18, ASM Handbook,
ASM International, 1992, p 271–279
72. J.E. Miller, Slurry Erosion, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology ,Vol 18, ASM Handbook, ASM
International, 1992, p 233–235
73. A. Kassman, S. Jacobsson, L. Erickson, P. Hedenqvist, and M. Olsson, A New Test Method for the
Intrinsic Abrasion Resistance of Thin Coatings, Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol 50, 1991, p 75–84
74. G. Nothnagel, Wear Resistance Determination of Coatings from Cross-Section Measurements of Ball-
Ground Craters, Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol 57, 1993, p 151–154
75. P. Hedenqvist, M. Bromark, M. Olsson, S. Hogmark, and E. Bergmann, Mechanical and Tribological
Characterization of Low Temperature Deposited PVD TiN Coatings, Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol 63,
1994, p 115–122
76. K.L. Rutherford and I.M. Hutchins, A Micro-Abrasive Wear Test, with Particular Application to Coated
Systems, Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol 79, 1996, p 231–239
77. K.L. Rutherford and I.M. Hutchings, Micro-Scale Abrasive Wear Testing of PVD Coatings on Curved
Surfaces, Tribology Letters, Vol 2, 1996, p 1–11
78. K.L. Rutherford, R.I. Trezona, A.C. Ramamurthy, and I.M. Hutchings, The Abrasive and Erosive Wear
of Polymeric Paint Films, Wear, Vol 203–204, 1997, p 325–334
79. M. Choudhury and I.M. Hutchings, The Effect of Irradiation and Ageing on the Abrasive Wear
Resistance of Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene, Wear, Vol 203–204, 1997, p 335–340
Solid Particle Erosive Wear Testing
Ian M. Hutchings, University of Cambridge (England)
Introduction
EROSION is defined as “progressive loss of original material from a solid surface due to mechanical
interaction between that surface and a fluid, a multicomponent fluid, or impinging liquid or solid particles” (Ref
1). Because of the broad scope of this term, it is usually qualified to indicate the relevant mechanism or context,
for example, as cavitation erosion, liquid impingement erosion, slurry erosion, or solid particle erosion. This
article addresses the topic of erosion by the impact of solid particles, which can be a serious cause of wear in
powder handling and transport systems, gas wells, chemical plant, and gas turbine engines. The particles
responsible for erosion are typically between 5 and 500 μm in size, and impact velocities can range from less
than 10 m/s up to supersonic speeds. Erosive particles are usually, but not inevitably, suspended in a flowing
gas stream, although the particle velocity may differ significantly from that of the gas.
The amount of material removed from a surface by erosion generally increases with the time of exposure to the
particle stream, as shown schematically in Fig. 1. Several methods can be used to express the dependence of
erosion on exposure time. Because in erosion testing it is often most convenient, as well as most accurate, to
determine material removal by periodically weighing the specimen, erosion is often quoted in terms of mass
removed from the surface by unit mass of erodent particles striking it (e.g., in milligrams eroded per kilogram).
This measure of erosion has the advantage that it is dimensionless, but for practical purposes, it is sometimes
preferable to express it as volume removed per unit mass of erodent (e.g., mm
3
eroded per kilogram of erodent).
In many applications the surface is exposed to a constant flux of erodent particles, and it is straightforward to
convert a value of erosion expressed, for example, as mass removed per unit mass of particles striking the
surface to depth removed in unit time. However the erosion is expressed, it is important to note that under some
circumstances, the rate of material removal will not be constant and that a significant incubation period may
occur after a fresh surface is exposed to the particle stream before the rate of erosion reaches a steady state (Fig.
1).
Fig. 1 Typical dependence of mass lost from a specimen on the total mass of erodent particles that have
struck it. In many cases, the mass loss increases linearly with mass of erodent from the start of the test,
but under some conditions there may be a significant incubation period when the specimen gains mass.
Reference cited in this section
1. “Standard Terminology Relating to Wear and Erosion,” G 40, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM,
1998
Solid Particle Erosive Wear Testing
Ian M. Hutchings, University of Cambridge (England)
Important Variables in Erosion
Erosion, defined as mass removed from the surface per unit mass of impacting particles, depends strongly on
the following:
• Particle impact velocity
• Particle impact angle
• Particle size, shape, and material
• Ambient temperature
as well as on the properties of the material being eroded. In a reproducible erosion test, all these factors should
be well controlled and, if possible, measured.
The most important variable in erosion is the particle velocity because, under most conditions, it has a very
strong influence on erosion rate. For many materials, once steady state conditions have been reached, the
erosion, E (expressed as the mass removed by unit mass of erodent particles), can be expressed as a simple
power function of particle impact velocity, V (Ref 2):
E = kV
n
(Eq 1)
where the constant of proportionality, k, includes the effects of all the other variables. The value of n, the
velocity exponent, is typically between 2 and 3, although much higher exponents are seen under some
circumstances. A value of approximately 2.4 is commonly seen for the erosion of ductile metals. The value ofn
does not vary much with impact angle, although there is some suggestion that higher values of n are associated
with steeper impact angles.
Erosion also depends markedly on impact angle, often in one of two distinctive ways. Ductile metals eroded by
angular particles show maximum erosion (expressed as mass loss per unit mass of particles) at shallow angles
of incidence. The impact angle in erosion is almost invariably defined as the angle between the direction of
particle motion and the plane of the surface, so that normal incidence corresponds to an impact angle of 90°.
Peak erosion for ductile metals occurs typically at an angle of 20 to 30° and is associated with impact under the
most favorable conditions for the removal of material by ductile ploughing and cutting mechanisms. The
erosion of a ductile metal at 90° incidence may be about ½ to ⅓ of the peak value. An example of this angular
dependence is illustrated in Fig. 2.