ASM Metals HandBook Vol. 8 - Mechanical Testing and Evaluation
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89. S.M. Freeman, Characterization of Lamina and Interlaminar Damage in Graphite-Epoxy Composites by
Deply Technique, ASTM STP 787, 1982, p 50–62
Footnote
*
The section “Interlaminar Shear Properties of Fiber-Reinforced Composites
at High Strain Rates” was written
by John Harding and Stephen Hallett, Oxford University. The section “Fatigue Testing and Behavior of Fiber-
Reinforced Composites” was written by W. Steven Johnson and Ramesh Talreja, Georgia Institute of
Technology.
Property Comparison Tables: Hardness and Tensile
Properties
Fig. 1 General comparison of hardness scales
Table 1 Hardness of plastics (Rockwell R scale)
Material High Low
Melamine, cellulose electrical 125 115
Polyphenylene sulfide; unreinforced 124 …
Polyphenylene sulfide; 40% glass reinforced 123 …
Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride 122 111
Nylon, mineral reinforced 121 119
Polyester, thermoplastic, PBT; unreinforced 120 117
Polyester, thermoplastic, PET, 45 and 30% glass reinforced 120 …
Polyester, thermoplastic, PBT/PET blend, 30 and 15% glass reinforced 120 119
Cellulose acetate 120 49
Nylons, general purpose 120 111
PVC, PVC-acetate; rigid 120 110
Polysulfone; unreinforced 120 …
Phenylene oxide-based resins; unreinforced 119 115
Polyester, thermoplastic, PBT, 45 and 35% glass/minimal reinforced 119 114
Polyester, thermoplastic, PBT, 30% glass reinforced 119 118
Polyester, thermoplastic, PBT, 30 and 10% mineral filled 118 112
ABS/polycarbonate 117 …
ABS/polysulfone (polyaryl ether) 117 …
ABS 115 75
Polypropylene; glass reinforced 115 90
Cellulose acetate butyrate 114 23
Fluorocarbon, PVF
2
110 …
Cellulose acetate propionate 109 57
ABS/PVC 102 …
Polypropylene, general purpose 100 80
Fluorocarbon, ETFE and ETCFE, unreinforced 95 …
ABS/polyurethane 82 70
Fluorocarbon, PTFE 55 35
PBT, polybutylene terephthalate; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; PVC, polyvinyl chloride; ABS, acrylonitrile-
butadiene-styrene; PVF, polyvinyl formal; ETFE, ethylene tetrafluoroethylene; ECTFE, ethylene
chlorotrifluoroethylene; PTFE, polytetrafluoroethylene.
Source: Adapted from Guide to Engineering Materials, Advanced Materials and Processes, Dec 1999
Table 2 Hardness of rubber and elastomers (Shore A scale)
Material High
Low
Thermoplastic elastomers 100
35
Urethane, polyether and polyester 100
80
Styrene butadiene 100
40
Natural rubber 100
30
Chlorinated polyethylene 95
40
Chloroprene 95
40
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene 95
50
Silicone 90
25
Polyacrylate 90
40
Nitrile 90
20
Fluorocarbon 90
65
Ethylene propylene, ethylene propylene diene 90
30
Epichlorohydrin 80
40
Isobutylene-isoprene 80
40
Polybutadiene 80
45
Polysulfide 80
20
Propylene oxide 80
40
Synthetic isoprene 80 40
Table 3 Hardness of ceramics (Mohs scale)
Material High
Low
Mullite 18
14
Niobium carbide 10
9
Beryllium carbide 9+
…
Tantalum carbide 9+
…
Beryllia 9
…
Alumina 9
…
Titanium carbide 9
8
Zirconium carbide 9
8
Zirconia 8
7
Zircon 8
…
Steatite 7.5
…
Thoria 7
…
Magnesia 6
…
Porcelain enamel 6
3.5
Calcia 6.0
3.3
Boron and aluminum nitrides
2 …
Table 4 Hardness of metals (Brinell scale)
Material High
Low
White and alloy irons; cast 700
130
Osmium 670
300
Low-alloy steels, wrought; normalized, quenched and tempered 627
202
Stainless steels, wrought martensitics hardened and tempered 580
180
Rhenium 555
331
Molybdenum and its alloys 555
179
Nickel and its alloys 534
75
Stainless steels, cast 470
130
Tungsten 443
330
Low-alloy steels, wrought; carburized, quenched and tempered 429
212
Copper casting alloys 415
35
Alloy steels, cast; quenched and tempered 401
262
Rhodium 401
100
Iridium 351
200
Gray irons; cast 350
140
Ruthenium 350
200
Nickel-base superalloys 341
302
Titanium and its alloys 331
…
Ductile (nodular) irons; cast 300
140
Hafnium 285
277
Malleable irons, pearlitic grades; cast 269
163
Stainless steels, standard martensitic grades, wrought; annealed 260
150
Ductile (nodular) austenitic cast irons 240
130
Tantalum and its alloys 237
…
Alloy steels, cast; normalized and tempered 217
137
High-strength low-alloy steels, 290–450 MPa (42–65 ksi) yield stress, wrought; as rolled 190
149
Depleted uranium 187
…
Zirconium and its alloys 179
112
Stainless steels, standard austenitic grades, wrought; annealed 170
143
Aluminum alloys, 7000 series 160
60
Malleable ferritic cast irons 156
110
Aluminum casting alloys 145
40
Aluminum alloys, 2000 series 135
45
Zinc foundry alloys 125
85
Aluminum alloys, 4000 series 120
…
Aluminum alloys, 6000 series 120
25
Palladium 118
40
Niobium and its alloys 114
…
Platinum 106
40
Aluminum alloys, 5000 series 105
28
Zinc die-casting alloys 91
82
Silver 90
26
Magnesium alloys, wrought 82
46
Magnesium alloys, cast 80
50
Aluminum alloys, 3000 series 77
28
Rare earths 77
17
Gold 66
25
Aluminum alloys, 1000 series 44
19
Tin and its alloys 29
5
Lead and its alloys 17
4.7
Indium 0.9 …
Fig. 2 Comparison of various engineering materials on the basis of tensile strength. Source: ASM
Handbook, Volume 20, Materials Selection and Design, p 513
Table 5 Tensile yield strength of metals and plastics at room temperature
Tensile yield strength
High
Low
Material
MPa ksi MPa
ksi
Cobalt and its alloys 1999 290 179
26
Low-alloy hardening steels; wrought, quenched and tempered 1986 288 524
76
Stainless steels, standard martensitic grades; wrought, heat treated 1896 275 414
60
Rhenium 1862 270 …
…
Ultrahigh strength steels; wrought, heat treated 1862 270 1172
170
Stainless steels, age hardenable; wrought, aged 1634 237 724
105
Nickel and its alloys 1586 230 69
10
Stainless steels, specialty grades; wrought, 60% cold worked 1558 226 703
102
Tungsten 1517 220 …
…
Molybdenum and its alloys 1448 210 565
82
Titanium and its alloys 1317 191 186
27
Carbon steels, wrought; normalized, quenched and tempered 1296 188 400
58
Low-alloy carburizing steels; wrought, quenched and tempered 1227 178 427
62
Nickel-base super alloys 1186 172 276
40
Alloy steels, cast; quenched and tempered 1172 170 772
112
Stainless steels; cast 1138 165 214
31
Tantalum and its alloys 1089 168 331
48
Steel P/M parts; heat treated 1062 154 517
75
Ductile (nodular) irons, cast 1034 150 276
40
Copper casting alloys
(a)
965 140 62
9
Stainless steels, standard austenitic grades; wrought, cold worked 965 140 517
75
Niobium and its alloys 931 135 241
35
Iron-base superalloys; cast, wrought 924 134 276
40
Cobalt-base superalloys, wrought 800 116 241
35
Bronzes, wrought
(a)
786 114 97
14
Heat treated low-alloy constructional steels; wrought, mill heat treated 758 110 621
90
High-copper alloys, wrought
(a)
758 110 62
9
Stainless steels, standard martensitic grades; wrought, annealed 724 105 172
25
Cobalt-base superalloys, cast 689 100 517
75
Heat treated carbon constructional steels; wrought, mill heat treated 690 100 290
42
Hafnium 662 96 221
32
Brasses, wrought
(a)
638 92.5 69
10
Aluminum alloys, 7000 series 627 91 97
14
Alloy steels, cast; normalized and tempered 627 91 262
38
Copper-nickel-zinc, wrought
(a)
620 90 124
18
Copper nickels, wrought
(a)
586 85 90
13
Malleable irons, pearlitic grades; cast 552 80 310
45
High-strength low-alloy steels; wrought, as-rolled 552 80 290
42
Stainless steels, specialty grades; wrought, annealed 552 80 186
27
Stainless steels, standard ferritic grades; wrought, cold worked 552 80 310
45
Carbon steels, wrought; carburized, quenched and tempered 531 77 317
46
Carbon steel, cast; quenched and tempered 517 75 …
…
Stainless steel (410) P/M parts; heat treated 517 75 …
…
Steel P/M parts; as-sintered 517 75 207
30
Coppers, wrought
(a)
496 72 69
10
Aluminum alloys, 2000 series 455 66 69
10
Ductile (nodular) austenitic irons, cast 448 65 193
28
Zinc foundry alloys 441 64 207
30
Zinc alloys, wrought 421 61 159
23
Stainless steels, standard ferritic grades; wrought, annealed 414 60 241
35
Aluminum alloys, 5000 series 407 59 41
6
Aluminum alloys, 6000 series 379 55 48
7
Aluminum casting alloys 379 55 55
8
Carbon steels, cast; normalized and tempered 379 55 331
48
Stainless steels, standard austenitic grades; wrought, annealed 379 55 207
30
Stainless steel P/M parts, as sintered 372 54 276
40
Rare earths 365 53 66
9.5
Zirconium and its alloys 365 53 103
15
Depleted uranium 345 50 241
35
Aluminum alloys, 4000 series 317 46 …
…
Thorium 310 45 179
26
Magnesium alloys, wrought 303 44 90
13
Silver 303 44 55
8
Carbon steels, cast; normalized 290 42 262
38
Beryllium and its alloys 276 40 34
5
Aluminum alloys, 3000 series 248 36 41
6
Carbon steel, cast; annealed 241 35 …
…
Malleable ferritic cast irons 241 35 221
32
Palladium 207 30 34
5
Gold 207 30 …
…
Magnesium alloys, cast 207 30 83
12
Polyimides, reinforced 193 28 34
5
Platinum 186 27 14
2
Iron P/M parts; as-sintered 179 26 76
11
Aluminum alloys, 1000 series 165 24 28
4
Polyphenylene sulfide, 40% glass reinforced 145 21 …
…
Polysulfone, 30–40% glass reinforced 131 19 117
17
Acetal, copolymer, 25% glass reinforced 128 18.5 …
…
Styrene acrylonitrile, 30% glass reinforced 124 18 …
…
Phenylene oxide based resins, 20–30% glass reinforced 117 17 100
14.5
Polyamide-imide 117 17 92
13.3
Polystyrene, 30% glass reinforced 97 14 …
…
Zinc die-casting alloys 96 14 …
…
Polyimides, unreinforced 90 13 52
7.5
Nylons, general purpose 87 12.6 49
7.1
Polyethersulfone 84 12.2 …
…
Polyphenylene sulfide, unreinforced 76 11 …
…
Polysulfone, unreinforced 70 10.2 …
…
Acetal, homopolymer, unreinforced 69 10 …
…
Nylon, mineral reinforced 69 10 62
9
Polypropylene, glass reinforced 69 10 41
6
Polystyrene, general purpose 69 10 34
5.0
Phenylene oxide based resins, unreinforced 66 9.6 54
7.8
Acetal, copolymer, unreinforced 61 8.8 …
…
ABS/polycarbonate 55 8.0 …
…
Lead and its alloys 55 8 11
1.6
Polyarylsulfone 55 8 …
…
ABS/polysulfone (polyarylether) 52 7.5 …
…
Acrylic/PVC 48 7.0 45
6.5
Tin and its alloys 45 6.6 7
1.3
ABS/PVC, rigid 41 6.0 …
…
Polystyrene, impact grades 41 6.0 19
2.8
Polypropylene, general purpose 36 5.2 33
4.8
ABS/polyurethane 31 4.5 26
3.7
Polypropylene, high impact 30 4.3 19 2.8
At 0.2% offset for metals, unless otherwise noted; tensile strength at yield for plastics, per ASTM D 638. P/M,
powder metallurgy; ABS, acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene; PVC, polyvinyl chloride.
(a) At 0.5% offset. Adapted from Guide to Engineering Materials, Advanced Materials and Processes, Dec
1999
Table 6 Tensile modulus of elasticity in tension at room temperature
Tensile modulus
High
Low
Material
GPa 10
6
psi
GPa
10
6
psi
Silicon carbide 655 95 90
13
Tungsten carbide-base cermets 650 94.3 425
61.6
Tungsten carbide 648 94 448
65
Osmium 551 80 …
…
Iridium 545 79 …
…
Titanium, zirconium, hafnium borides 503 73 490
71
Ruthenium 469 68 …
…
Rhenium 469 68 …
…
Boron carbide 448 65 290
42
Boron 441 64 …
…
Tungsten 406 59.0 …
…
Beryllia 399 58 270
39
Titanium carbide-base cermets 393 57 290
42
Rhodium 379 55 …
…
Titanium carbide 379 55 248
36
Molybdenum and its alloys 365 53 317
46
Tantalum carbide 365 53 …
…
Magnesia 345 50 241
35
Alumina ceramic 345 50 207
30
Niobium carbide 338 49 …
…
Beryllium carbide 317 46 207
30
Chromium 289 42 …
…
Beryllium and its alloys 289 42.0 186
27.0
Graphite-epoxy composites 276 40 134
20
Cobalt-base superalloys 248 36.0 199
29.0
Zirconia 241 35 158
23
Nickel and its alloys 234 34.0 131
19.0
Cobalt and its alloys 231 33.6 207
30.0
Nickel-base superalloys 231 33.5 126
18.3
Iron-base superalloys; cast and wrought 214 31 193
28
Silicon nitride 214 31 62
9
Alloy steels; cast 207 30 200
29
Boron-epoxy composites 207 30 …
…
Carbon steels; cast 207 30 …
…
Carbon steel, carburizing grades; wrought 207 30 200
29
Carbon steels, hardening grades; wrought 207 30 200
29
Depleted uranium 207 30 138
20
Stainless steels, age hardenable; wrought 207 30 193
28
Stainless steels, specialty grades; wrought 207 30 186
27
Ultrahigh strength steels; wrought 207 30 186
27
Stainless steels; cast 200 29 165
24
Stainless steels, standard austenitic grades; wrought 200 29 193
28
Stainless steels, standard ferritic grades; wrought 200 29 …
…
Stainless steels, standard martensitic grades; wrought 200 29 …
…
Boron-aluminum composites 193 28 …
…
Malleable irons, pearlitic grades; cast 193 28 179
26
Tantalum and its alloys 186 27.0 144
21.0
Ductile (nodular) irons; cast 172 25 152
22
Malleable ferritic cast irons 172 25 …
…
Platinum 172 25 …
…
Gray irons; cast 165 24 66
9.6
Copper nickels, wrought 151 22.0 124
18.0
Mullite 145 21 …
…
Zircon 145 21 …
…
Ductile (nodular) austenitic irons; cast 138 20 90
13
Hafnium 138 20 …
…
Copper casting alloys 133 19.3 76
11.0
Vanadium 131 19 124
18
High-copper alloys, wrought 131 19.0 117
17.0
Coppers, wrought 129 18.7 117
17.0
Titanium and its alloys 127 18.5 76
11.0
Copper-nickel-zinc; wrought 124 18.0 124
18.0
Palladium 124 18.0 …
…
Brasses; wrought 124 18.0 103
15.0
Bronzes; wrought 120 17.5 110
16.0
Polycrystalline glass 119 17.3 86
12.5
Niobium and its alloys 110 16.0 79
11.5
Silicon 107 15.5 …
…
Zirconium and its alloys 96 14.0 95
13.8
Zinc alloys; wrought 96 14.0 43
6.2
Rare earths 84 12.2 15
2.2
Gold 82 12.0 …
…
Aluminum alloys, 4000 series 79 11.4 …
…
Silver 76 11.0 …
…
Boron nitride 76 11 48
7
Aluminum alloys, 2000 series 74 10.8 70
10.2
Silica 72 10.5 …
…
Aluminum alloys, 7000 series 72 10.4 71
10.3
Aluminum alloys, 5000 series 71 10.3 69
10.0
Thorium 71 10.3 …
…
Aluminum alloys, 1000 series 69 10.0 69
10.0
Aluminum alloys, 3000 series 69 10.0 69
10.0
Aluminum alloys, 6000 series 69 10.0 69
10.0
Thorium 69 10.0 …
…
Tin and its alloys 53 7.7 41
6.0
Cordierite 48 7 …
…
Magnesium alloys; wrought 45 6.5 41
6.0
Magnesium alloys; cast 45 6.5 45
6.5
Polyesters, thermoset, pultrusions, general purpose 41 6.0 16
2.3
Epoxy, glass laminates 40 5.8 23
3.3
Glass fiber-epoxy composites 34 5 …
…
Bismuth 32 4.6 …
…
Polyimides; glass reinforced 31 4.5 …
…
Carbon graphite 28 4.0 4
0.6
Graphite, pyrolytic 28 4.0 …
…
Phenolics; reinforced 23 3.3 2.4
0.35
Alkyds 20 2.9 13
1.9
Graphite; recrystallized 19 2.7 5.5
0.8
Hickory (shag bark) 15 2.2 …
…
Locust (black) 14 2.1 …
…
Polyester, thermoplastic, PET; 45 and 30% glass reinforced
14 2.1 9
1.3
Birch (yellow) 13 2.0 …
…
Douglas fir (coat type) 13 2.0 …
…
Lead and its alloys 13 2.0 …
…
Pine (long needle, ponderosa) 13 2.0 9
1.3
Polyesters, thermoset, reinforced moldings 13 2.0 8.3
1.2
Ash (white) 12 1.8 …
…
Graphite, general purpose 12 1.8 3.4
0.5
Maple (sugar) 12 1.8 …
…
Oak (red, white) 12 1.8 …
…
Styrene acrylonitrile; 30% glass reinforced 12 1.8 …
…
Beech 11 1.7 …
…
Carbon and graphite, fibrous reinforced 12 1.8 2
0.3
Graphite, premium 11.7 1.7 4.8
0.7
Walnut (black) 11.7 1.7 …
…
Polycarbonate, 40% glass reinforced 11.7 1.7 5.9
0.86
Spruce (sitka) 11.0 1.6 …
…
Poplar (yellow) 11.0 1.6 …
…
Carbon, petroleum coke base 11.0 1.6 15.8
2.3
Indium 10.8 1.57 …
…
Basswood 10.3 1.5 …
…
Elm (rock) 10.3 1.5 …
…
Polysulfone, 30–40% glass reinforced 10.3 1.5 7.6
1.1
Cypress (Southern bald) 9.6 1.4 …
…
Nylons; 30% glass reinforced 9.7 1.4 6.9
1.0
Polyester, thermoplastic, PBT; 40 and 15% glass reinforced
9.7 1.4 5.5
0.8
Cedar (Port Orford) 8.9 1.3 …
…
Cottonwood (black) 8.9 1.3 …
…
Phenylene oxide based resins; 20–30% glass reinforced 9.0 1.3 6.4
0.93
Redwood (virgin) 8.9 1.3 …
…
Acetal, copolymer; 25% glass reinforced 8.6 1.25 …
…
Carbon, anthracite coal base 8.2 1.2 4.1
0.6
Diallyl phthalates, reinforced 8.3 1.2 4.1
0.6
Fir (balsam) 8.3 1.2 …
…
Hemlock (Eastern, Western) 8.3 1.2 10.3
1.5
Pine (Eastern white) 8.3 1.2 …
…
Polybutadienes 8.3 1.2 2.8
0.4