Askeland D.R., Fulay P.P. Essentials of Materials Science & Engineering
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Periodic table, 30–32
Peritectic reactions, 330, 351
Peritectoid reactions, 330–331, 351
Permanent mold casting, 275–276, 285
Permeability of polymers, di¤usion and,
141, 149
Perovskite structure, 78–79
Phase diagrams, 294–295, 303–314, 319,
328–341, 370–371
binary, 303–304, 328–331
dispersion strengthening, 328–341,
370–371
eutectic, 331–341
isomorphous, 303–311
isopleth, 333
mechanical properties and, 312–314
miscibility gaps, 330
P-T, 294–295
solid solutions and, 294–295, 303–314
ternary, 303–304
three-phase reactions in, 328–331,
370–371
triple point, 294–295
unary, 294–295
Phase transformations, 357–390, 450
age hardening, 364–370
copper alloys, 450
dispersion strengthening ( b) and, 357–
390
eutectoid reactions, 370–380
martensitic reactions, 380–384
solid-state reactions, 358–362, 370–
380, 380–384
solubility limit, 332–334, 362–364
Phases, 292–296, 305–311, 319, 324–
326, 326–331, 544–545. See also
Dispersion strengthening
alloys and, 292
composites, 544–545
composition of, 306–309
diagrams, 294–295, 303–314, 328–341
dispersed (precipitate), 325–326, 544–
545
Gibbs rule for, 293, 307, 331
interphase interface, 324
lever rule, 309–311
matrix, 325, 544–545
microconstituent, 325
multiple, 324–356
single, 292–296, 305 –311, 319
three-phase reactions, 328–331
Phenolics, 530
Photonic (optical) materials, 11
Pig iron, 391, 430
Pipe shrinkage, 272–273, 285
Planar density, 69, 85
Planar growth, 264–265, 285
Planes, 68–74, 85, 100–102, 104
anisotropic behavior, 74
basal, 73
close-packed (CP), 72–74
form fg,ofa,69
hexagonal closed-pack (HCP), 70–72
interplanar spacing, 74
isotropic behavior, 74
Miller-Bravais indices, 70–72
Miller indices, 68–74
Peierls-Nabarro stress, 101
planar density, 69
slip, 100–102, 104
stacking sequence, 73
unit cells, in, 68–70, 85
Plastic deformation (strain), 105, 156,
182, 519
Plastics, see Polymers
Point defects, 91–98, 118
dopants, 91
Frenkel, 97
impurities, 91
interstitial, 94–98
Shottky, 97
substitutional, 998
vacancies, 91–94, 97–98
Points, 57–60, 64, 84
coordinates of, 64
lattice, 55–56, 58–59, 84
unit cells and, 57–60, 64, 84
Poisson’s ratio (m), 167, 182
Polar molecules, 37, 47
Polyamides, 530
Polycrystalline structure, 11–12, 18, 19,
53
grain boundaries of, 11–12, 18, 53
long-range atomic arrangements of
(LRO), 53
Polyesters, 530
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
plastics, di¤usion and, 123–124
Polygonized subgrain structure, 242–243,
251
Polymerization, 8, 19, 501–506
addition, 501–502
condensation, 501–504
degree of, 504–506
Polymers, 5, 8, 19, 141, 198, 278–279,
298–299, 496–542, 550–552
adhesives, 530–531
atomic structure of, 497–506
benzene ring representation of, 500
blending (alloying), 512
branched, 497–498
calendaring, 534
casting, 534
chain representation of, 499–500,
composites, 550–552
copolymers, 298–299, 510–512, 538
crystallization in, 510, 513, 516–518,
523
deformation and, 510
di¤usion and, 141
elastomers (rubbers), 498–499, 523–
528, 538
extrusion of, 532–533
foams, 535
fracture in, 198
lamellar structure of, 278–279
linear, 497–498
liquid crystalline (LCPs), 512, 539
material properties of, 5, 8, 19
molding processes for, 533–535
permeability of, 141
plastics, 8, 19, 496–497
polymeric systems, 298–299
processing, 531–537
recycling, 531, 537
repeat units (mers), 501, 504–506,
507–508, 526, 529
solidification of, 278–279
solubility of solid-solutions of, 298–
299
spherulites in, 278–279
spinning, 534
thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs), 499,
527–528
thermoplastics, 8, 19, 498–499, 506–
523, 532–534
thermosetting (thermosets), 8, 19,
498–499, 528–530, 534–535
Polymorphic transformations, 63–64, 85
Porosity, 274, 285, 478–479
apparent, 478
shrinkage and, 274, 285
sintered ceramics, 478–479
true, 487
Pouring temperature, 267, 285
Powder metallurgy, 472, 494
Powder processing, 472–477, 494
Powders, rapidly solidifying alloys and,
316–317
Precious metals, 462–463
Precipitates, 325, 351, 364, 367, 386
coherent, 364, 386
dispersion phase of, 325, 351
nonequilibrium, 367
Precipitation hardening, 325, 352. See
also Age hardening
Precipitation-hardening alloys, 453
Precipitation-hardening (PH) stainless
steels, 421
Precursors, 565, 581
Prepegs, 566, 581
Pressure die casting, 275–276, 285
Primary (proeutectic) microconstituents,
340, 342, 352, 373–375
Process annealing, 396, 430
Processing of materials, 2, 19, 115, 117,
123–125, 146–147, 155, 225–256, 258–
259, 271–280, 347 –348
annealing, 115, 117, 241–248
carburization, 123
casting, 146, 271–278
di¤usion and, 123–125, 146–147
di¤usion bonding, 147
INDEX600
dopants, 123
eutectic reactions and, 347–348
grain growth, 146, 243–244
joining, 247–248, 279–280
melting, 146
oxidization, 124
primary, 258
secondary, 258
sintering, 146
solidification and, 258–259, 271–280
strain hardening, 115, 225–256
surface hardening, 123
synthesis and, 2, 19
Pseudoplastics (shear thinning), 159, 182
Pultrusion, 568, 581
PZT ceramics, 9, 11
Q
Quantum numbers, 28–29, 47
Quenching, 365–366, 401–406, 430
age hardening, 365–366
continuous cooling transformation
(CCT) diagrams for, 405–406
cracks, 404
heat treatment as, 401–406, 430
rate, 405
tempering and, 401–406
R
Radius ratios, interstitial sites, 75–76
Rapid solidification, 55, 268–269, 285
Rate of di¤usion, 130–133
Reaction injection molding (RIM), 535
Recalescence, 269–270, 285
Recovery, 242–243, 251
Recrystallization, 243, 244–246, 251
Recycling polymers, 531, 537
Refractories, ceramic, 488–490
Refractory metals, 462–463, 464
Repeat distance, 67, 85
Residual stresses, 237–239, 251, 404
Risers, 272–273, 285
Rockwell hardness (HR) test, 175
Rolling process, 229
Rotating cantilever beam test for, 208, 221
Rovings of fibers, 566,581
Rubber, see Elastomers
Rule of mixtures, 548, 553
Rupture time (t
r
), 218–219, 221
S
S-N curve, 208–209, 221
Sand casting, 274–275, 285
Sandwich structures, 578–579, 581
Schmid’s law, 105–108, 118
Screw dislocations, 98, 118
Second stage graphitization (SSG), 425,
430
Secondary bonds, 37–38, 47
Secondary dendrite arm spacing (SDAS),
267–269, 285
Secondary hardening peak, 412, 430
Segregation of elements, 316, 319
Self-di¤usion, 127–128, 149
Semiconductors, 5, 8–9, 19, 30–32, 47
atomic structure groups of, 30–32, 47
material properties of, 5, 8–9, 19
Sensitization, 421, 430
Shape-memory alloys (SMAs), 380, 386
Shear modulus (G), 156, 182
Shear strain rate, 157, 182
Sheet texture, 236, 251
Short-range atomic order (SRO), 22, 24,
47, 52–53
Shot peening, 238, 251
Shottky defects, 97, 118
Shrinkage, 272–274, 285
cavities, 272–273
interdendritic, 274
pipe, 272–273
porosity, 274
risers, 272–273
solidification defects, as, 272–274
Sievert’s law, 274, 285
Single crystals (SC), 11, 53, 56, 58–60,
63, 278, 491
casting and, 278
ceramics, 491
growth, 278
long-range atomic arrangements of
(LRO), 53
simple cubic (SC) structures, 56, 58–
60, 63
Single-phase alloys, 292, 319
Sintered ceramics, 146, 149, 473–476,
477–479
di¤usion and, 146, 149
grains and grain boundaries, 477–478
porosity, 478–479
sintering process for, 473–476
Sizing fibers, 563, 581
Slip, 100–102, 104, 105–109, 115,
118
control of, 115
critical resolved shear stress (t
crss
),
108–109
cross-slip, 109
crystal structure and, 108–109
direction, 100–101, 118
dislocations, 100–102, 104, 118
mechanical properties, e¤ects on from,
115
number of systems, 109
plane, 100–102, 104, 118
Schmid’s law, 105–108, 118
systems, 100–102, 104, 105–108
Slip casting, 472, 476–477, 494
Small angle grain boundaries, 113, 118
Smart materials, 11, 19
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE),
392
Sodium chloride (NaCl) structure, 77
Soldering, 279, 285
Solid solutions, 115–116, 291–323, 331–
341, 371, 448–449, 453
alloys, 314–318, 331 –332, 448–449,
453
degree of strengthening, 302
dispersion strengthening ( b) and, 331–
341
eutectic phase diagrams and, 331–341
eutectoid reactions in, 371
Gibbs phase rule, 293, 318
isomorphous phase diagrams, 303–
311, 318
limited solubility of, 297–298, 319
material properties, e¤ect of
strengthening on, 302–303
phase diagrams, 294–295, 303–314,
319, 331–341
phases, 292–296, 319
polymeric systems and, 298–299
solidification of alloys, 314–317
solubility and, 296–300, 319
strain hardening and, 115
strengthening (a), 115–116, 301–303,
319, 331–341, 448–449, 453
unlimited solubility of, 296–297, 299–
300, 319
Solid-state reactions, 358–362, 370–380
Avrami relationship, 359
dispersion strengthening ( b) and, 358–
362
eutectoid reactions, 370–380
growth, 358
kinetics and, 359
nucleation, 358
temperature e¤ects on, 359–362
Solidification, 257–290, 314–317
bulk metallic glasses (NMG), 280–
282, 283
casting, 271–278
Chvorinov’s rule, 266, 283
cooling curves, 269–270, 314–316
defects, 272–274
di¤usion and, 314–315
directional (DS), 277–278, 283
front, 264, 285
gas porosity, 247, 284
glasses, 279, 280–282
growth mechanisms, 264–269, 284
inorganic glasses, 279
joining processes, 279–280
latent heat of fusion, 261–262, 284,
314–315
material processing and, 258–259
nonequilibrium, 315–317
nucleation, 259–264, 285
INDEX 601
Solidification (continued)
polymers, 278–279
shrinkage, 272–274, 285
solid-solution alloys, 314–317
technological significance of, 258–259
time, 267 –269, 270
Solidus temperature, 305, 319
Solubility, 296–300, 319, 332–334, 362–
364
alloys exceeding limit of, 332–334,
362–364
copolymers, 298–299
Hume-Rothery rules, 299–300
limited, 297–298, 319, 332–334, 362–
364
polymeric systems and, 298–299
solid solutions and, 296–300
unlimited, 296–297, 299–300, 319
Solution treatment for age hardening,
365, 386
Solvus curve, 333, 352
Specific heat, 264, 285
Specific modulus, 538–541, 581
Specific strength, 538–541, 581
Spheroidizing, 397–398, 430
Spherulites, 278–279, 286
Spin quantum number (m
s
), 29, 47
Spinning, polymer processing, 534
Spray atomization, 316–317, 319
Spray drying, 472, 494
Springback, 230–231
Stability of atom and ion movements,
29, 125–127
Stacking faults, 113, 114, 118
Stacking sequence, 73, 85
Stainless steels, 418–421, 431
austenitic, 420–421
duplex, 421
ferritic, 418 –419
martensitic, 419–420
precipitation-hardening (PH), 421
sensitization of, 421
Staples of fibers, 566, 581
Steel, 123, 380–384, 392–399, 412–418.
See also Stainless steels
American Iron and Steel Institute
(AISI), 392–396
annealing, 396–397
classifications of, 395–396
designations of, 392–395
dual-phase, 413
galvanized, 413
heat treatment of, 392–396, 412–418
high-strength-low-alloy (HSLA), 412–
413
interstitial-free, 413
maraging, 431
martensitic reactions of, 380–384
specialty, 412–418
spheroidizing, 397–398
surface hardening, 123, 415–417
tempering, 383–384
terne, 413
tool, 412
weldability of, 417–418
Sti¤ness, 166, 182
Stoichiometric intermetallic compounds,
326–327, 352
Strain (e), 155–159, 161–162, 169–171,
183, 358, 386
elastic, 155–156
energy, 358, 386
engineering, 161–162
plastic, 156
rate, 156–157
responses, 155–159
true, 169–171
Strain gage, 160, 183
Strain hardening, 115, 225–256
anisotropic behavior from, 235–237,
248–249
annealing and, 115, 237, 241–248, 250
Bauschinger e¤ect, 231, 250
cold working, 226–241, 250
deformation processing, 240–241,
246–247, 251
dislocation density and, 231–232
exponent (n), 229–230, 252
hot working, 235–236, 248–250, 251
microstructures of materials from,
235–237
residual stresses from,. 237–239, 251
springback, 230–231
strain-rate sensitivity (m), 230, 252
stress–strain curves for, 226–231
Strain rate, 14, 156–157, 176–177, 183,
230, 252
cold working, 230, 252
environmental e¤ects of, 14
impact behavior and, 157, 176–177
mechanical properties and, 156–157,
183
sensitivity (m), 230, 252
Strength, see Tensile strength; Yield
strength
Strength-to-weight ratio, 8, 14–15, 19
Stress (s), 155–159, 161–165, 169–171,
172–174, 183, 188–190, 212–213, 237–
239, 404, 520–522
amplitude (s
a
), 212–213
engineering, 161–162
flexural strength (s
bend
), 172–174
intensity factor (K), 188
mean (s
m
), 212–213
raisers (flaws), 188–190
relaxation, 157, 183, 520–522
residual,. 237–239, 404
responses, 155–159
shear, 155–156
tensile strength (s
ts
), 164–165
true, 169–171
yield strength (s
y
), 163–164, 183
Stress corrosion, 216–217, 221
Stress-induced crystallization, 513, 539
Stress-relief anneal, 237, 243, 252
Stress rupture, 216
Stress–strain diagrams, 159–169, 178–
179, 226–231
cold working and, 226–231
curves, 160–161
impact testing and, 178–179
mechanical properties determined by,
163–169
strain-hardening exponent (n), 229–
230
tensile tests and, 159–169
Structure of materials, 2, 11–12, 19–20,
21–50. See also Microstructure of
materials
atomic, 2, 21–50
crystalline, 11, 18
grain boundaries, 11–12
grains, 11–12, 18
polycrystalline, 11, 19
single crystals, 11
Substiutional defects, 97–98, 118
Superalloys, 452, 464
Superheat, 261, 286
Supersaturated solution, 365–366, 386
Surface defects, 109–114, 118
grain boundaries, 110–114
material, 109 –110
small angle grain boundaries, 113
stacking faults, 113, 114
twin boundaries, 113–114
Surface di¤usion, 139–140, 149
Surface finish, hot working, 249–250
Surface hardening treatments, 123, 415–
417
carburization, 123, 415–416
case depth, 415
di¤usion and, 123
nitriding, 416
steels, 123, 415–417
Synthesis of materials, 2, 19
T
Tacticity, 510, 539
Tape casting, 472, 476, 494
Temper designation, 439
Temperature (T), 12–13, 133–138, 140–
141, 160, 169, 177–178, 179, 181, 215,
243, 244–248, 251, 261–262, 264–265,
267, 305, 359–362, 366, 367–370, 376–
380, 479–480, 512 –518, 539
activation energy (E) and, 140–141
age-hardenable alloys at high, 369–
370
INDEX602
aging, 366, 367–369
annealing, e¤ects of on, 244–248
degradation (T
d
), 514
di¤usion, e¤ects of on, 133–138, 140–
141
ductile to brittle transition (DBBT),
177–178, 179
environmental e¤ects of, 12–13
fatigue test, e¤ects of on, 215
freezing, 261–262, 264–265, 305
glass (T
g
), 160, 181, 479–480, 512–
515, 539
liquidus, 305
mechanical properties, e¤ects of on,
160, 169
melting (T
m
), 512–515
pouring, 267
recrystallization, 243, 244–246, 251
solid-state reactions, e¤ects of on,
359–362
solidus, 305
tensile testing, e¤ects of on, 169
thermoplastics, e¤ect of on, 512–518
transformation, 376–380
Tempered glass, 484, 494
Tempering, 383–384, 386, 401–406,
408–409, 431
alloying elements and, 408–409
heat treatment, 401–406, 408–409,
431
martensitic reactions from, 383–384,
403, 431
quenching and, 401–406
retained austenite and, 403
steel, 383–384
Tensile strength (s
ts
), 164–165, 183
Tensile test, 159–169, 183
ductility, 168
elastic properties from, 165–167
engineering stress and strain, 161–162
introduction to, 159–161
mechanical properties obtained from,
163–169
stress–strain diagrams, 159–163
temperature e¤ects on, 169
tensile strength (s
ts
), 164–165
tensile toughness, 167–168
units of, 162
yield strength (s
y
), 163–164, 183
Tensile toughness, 167–168, 183
Tetrahedral sites, 53, 74–75, 85
Texture strengthening, 235–237, 252
Thermal arrest, 270, 286
Thermal grooving, 112, 118
Thermoforming, 534
Thermo-mechanical processing, 226, 252
Thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs), 499,
527–528
Thermoplastics, 8, 19, 498–499, 506–
523, 532–534
atomic structure of, 498–499
blow molding, 533
blushing, 523
crazing, 523
creep, 520 –522
crystallization in, 510, 513, 516–518,
523
degradation temperature (T
d
), 514
dislocations and, 232
elastic behavior of, 519
extrusion of, 532–533
glass temperature (T
g
), 512–515, 539
glassy state of, 515
heat deflection (distortion)
temperature, 522
impact behavior, 522–523
injection molding, 533–534
material properties of, 8, 19
mechanical properties of, 518–523
melting temperature (T
m
), 512–515
plastic behavior of, 519
repeat units for, 507–508
stress relaxation, 520–522
tacticity, 510
temperature e¤ects of on, 512–518
thermoforming, 534
Thermosetting polymers (thermosets), 8,
19, 498–499, 528–530, 534–535
atomic structure of, 498–499
compression molding, 534–535
material properties of, 8, 19, 528–529
reaction injection molding (RIM), 535
repeat units for, 529
transfer molding, 535
types of, 530
Thin films, 124, 491
Three-phase reactions, 328–341, 370–371
eutectic, 330–349
eutectoid, 330, 370–371
Gibbs phase rule for, 331
monotectic, 330
peritectic, 330
peritectoid, 330–331
phase diagrams for, 328–341, 370–371
Tie line, 308, 319
Time, 139–140, 218–219, 267–269, 270,
367–369
aging, 367–369
di¤usion, e¤ects of on, 139–140
rupture (t
r
), 218–219
solidification, 267–269, 270
Time-temperature-transformation (TTT)
diagram, 376–377, 398–401, 406–408
Titanium alloys, 454–462
Tool steels, 412, 431
Total solidification time, 270, 286
Toughness, 167–168, 176, 182, 183, 187–
200
fracture, 167, 176, 187–200
impact, 176, 182
tensile, 167 –168, 183
Tow of fibers, 566, 581
Transfer molding, 535
Transformation temperature, 376–380
Transgranular manner of ductile
fracture, 194, 221
Transition elements, 32, 47
Transmission electron microscopy
(TEM), 81, 85
Triple point, 294–295, 319
True stress and strain, 169–171
Twin boundaries, 113–114, 118
U
Unary phase diagrams, 294–295, 319
Undercooling, 261, 286
Unit cells, 55–63, 64–74, 85
closed-pack directions of, 59–60
coordinate system for, 64
crystal structure and, 55–63
directions in, 64–67, 70
linear density, 67
Miller indices, 64–74
number of atoms per, 58–59
packing fraction, 67, 85
planes in, 68–74
points in, 57–60, 64
repeat distance, 67
Units, conversions of, 162
Unlimited solubility, 296–297, 299–300,
319
Unsaturated bonds, 501, 540
Urethanes, 530
V
Vacancies, 91–94, 97–98, 118
Vacancy di¤usion, 128, 149
Valence electrons, 29, 47
Van der Waals interactions (bonds), 37–
38, 47
Vermicular graphite, 427, 431
Vinyl compounds, 509–510
Viscoelastic (analastic) material, 157,
183, 518
Viscosity (h), 157, 183
Viscous materials, 157, 183
Vitrification, 487, 494
Volume di¤usion, 138–140, 149
Volume fraction, 558
Vulcanization, 525–526, 540
W
Warm working, 246, 252
Weibull distribution, 200–205, 221
INDEX 603
Welding, 247–248, 279–280, 417–418
fusion, 297–280
fusion zone, 279–280
heat-a¤ected zone (HAZ), 247–248
steel weldability, 417–418
Whiskers, 545, 565, 581
White cast iron, 424, 431
Widmanstðtten structure, 363,
386
W—hler curve, 208–209, 221
Work hardening, see Strain hardening
Work of fracture, 167, 183
Wrought alloys, 439–442, 464
X
X-ray di¤raction (XRD), 53, 80–81, 85
Y
Yarns of fibers, 566, 581
YBCO ceramic compounds, 6
Yield strength (s
y
), 42, 47, 110–111,
163–164, 183
elastic limit, 163
grain size and, 110–111
Hall-Petch equation, 110–111
material deformation and, 42, 47
o¤set, 163–164
proportional limit, 163
tensile test for, 163–164
yield point phenomenon, 164, 183
Young’s modulus (E), 156, 165–167, 183
Z
Zinc blende (ZnS) structure, 78
INDEX604
9 Units and conversion factors
1 pound (lb) ¼ 4.448 Newtons (N)
1 psi ¼ pounds per square inch
1 MPa ¼ MegaPascal ¼ MegaNewtons per square meter (MN/m
2
)
¼ Newtons per square millimeter (N/mm
2
) ¼ 1,000,000 Pa
1 GPa ¼ 1000 MPa ¼ GigaPascal
1 ksi ¼ 1000 psi ¼ 6.895 MPa
1 psi ¼ 0.006895 MPa
1 MPa ¼ 0.145 ksi ¼ 145 psi
9 Some useful relationships, constants, and units
Electron volt ¼ 1eV¼ 1.6 10
19
Joule ¼ 1.6 10
12
erg
1 amp ¼ 1 coulomb/second
1 volt ¼ 1 amp ohm
k
B
T at room temperature (300 K) ¼ 0.0259 eV
c ¼ speed of light 2.998 10
8
m/s
e
0
¼ perimitivity of free space ¼ 8.85 10
12
F/m
q ¼ charge on electron ¼ 1.6 10
19
C
Avogadro’s number N
A
¼ 6.023 10
23
k
B
¼ Boltzmann’s constant ¼ 8.63 10
5
eV/K ¼ 1.38 10
23
J/K
h ¼ Planck’s constant 6.63 10
34
J-s ¼ 4.14 10
15
eV-s
