Wallace The Basics of New Testament Syntax

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ExSyn 554–57

The Aorist Tense

Overview of Uses

➡ 1. Constative (Complexive, Punctiliar, Comprehensive, Global) Aorist . 241

➡ 2. Ingressive (Inceptive, Inchoative) Aorist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

➡ 3. Consummative (Culminative, Ecbatic, Effective) Aorist . . . . . . . . . . . 241

4. Epistolary Aorist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

5. Proleptic (Futuristic) Aorist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

6. Immediate Past Aorist/Dramatic Aorist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

INTRODUCTION

Aspect and Time

1. Aspect: “Snapshot”

The aorist tense “presents an occurrence in summary, viewed as a whole from

the outside, without regard for the internal make-up of the occurrence.”

This

contrasts with the present and imperfect, which portray the action as an ongoing

process. It may be helpful to think of the aorist as taking a snapshot of the action

while the imperfect (like the present) takes a motion picture, portraying the action

as it unfolds.

2. Time

In the indicative, the aorist usually indicates past time with reference to the

time of speaking (thus, “absolute time”). Aorist participles usually suggest antecedent

time to that of the main verb (i.e., past time in a relative sense). There are excep-

tions to this general principle, of course, but they are due to intrusions from other

linguistic features vying for control (see below).

Outside the indicative and participle, time is not a feature of the aorist.

239

See ExSyn 554–65. The gnomic aorist (see 562) is sufficiently rare that the average inter-

mediate Greek student may ignore it.

Fanning, Verbal Aspect, 97.

Indirect discourse aorists are an exception to this rule. But this is because such aorists

represent an indicative of the direct discourse. See chapter on “Moods” for discussion.

Diagram 66

The Force of the Aorist Indicative

Past Present Future

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Thawing Out the Aorist:

The Role of the Context and Lexeme

The aorist is not always used merely to summarize. In combination with

other linguistic features (such as lexeme or context) the aorist often does more.

Some actions, for instance, are shut up to a particular tense. If a speaker wishes to

indicate an action that is intrinsically terminal (such as “find,” “die,” or “give birth

to”), the choice of tense is dramatically reduced. We would not usually say “he

was finding his book.” The imperfect, under normal circumstances, would thus be

inappropriate.

By contrast, if a speaker wants to speak of the unchanging nature of a state

(such as “I have” or “I live”), the aorist is not normally appropriate. Indeed, when

the aorist of such stative verbs is used, the emphasis is most frequently on the

entrance into the state.

The point is that often the choice of a tense is made for a speaker by the

action he or she is describing. At times the tense chosen by the speaker is the

only one that could have been used to portray the idea. Three major factors

determine this: lexical meaning of the verb (e.g., whether the verb stem indicates

a terminal or punctual act, a state, etc.), contextual factors, and other grammat-

ical features (e.g., mood, voice, transitiveness, etc). This is the difference between

aspect and Aktionsart: Aspect is the basic meaning of the tense, unaffected by

considerations in a given utterance, while Aktionsart is the meaning of the tense

as used by an author in a particular utterance, affected, as it were, by other fea-

tures of the language.

The use of the aorist in any given situation depends, then, on its combina-

tion with other linguistic features.

The Abused Aorist: Swinging the Pendulum Back

There are two errors to avoid in treating the aorist: saying too little and say-

ing too much.

First, some have said too little by assuming that nothing more than the unaf-

fected meaning can ever be seen when the aorist is used. This view fails to rec-

ognize that the aorist tense (like other tenses) does not exist in a vacuum.

Categories of usage are legitimate because the tenses combine with other lin-

guistic features to form various fields of meaning.

Second, many NT students see a particular category of usage (Aktionsart) as

underlying the entire tense usage (aspect). This is the error of saying too much. State-

ments such as “the aorist means once-for-all action” are of this sort. It is true that

the aorist may, under certain circumstances, describe an event that is, in reality,

momentary. But we run into danger when we say that this is the aorist’s unaffected

meaning, for then we force it on the text in an artificial way. We then tend to ignore

such aorists that disprove our view (and they can be found in virtually every chap-

ter of the NT) and proclaim loudly the “once-for-all” aorists when they suit us.

The Basics of New Testament Syntax240

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ExSyn 557–65

SPECIFIC USES

➡1. Constative (Complexive, Punctiliar,

Comprehensive, Global) Aorist

ExSyn 557–58

a. Definition. The aorist normally views the action as a whole, taking no inter-

est in the internal workings of the action. It describes the action in summary fash-

ion, without focusing on the beginning or end of the action specifically. This is by

far the most common use of the aorist, especially with the indicative mood.

The constative aorist covers a multitude of actions. The event might be iter-

ative in nature, or durative, or momentary, but the aorist says none of this. It

places the stress on the fact of the occurrence, not its nature.

b. Illustrations

Matt 8:3

eejjkktteeiivvnnaaßß

th©n ceiçra

hh{{yyaattoo

aujtouç

He stretched out his hand and touched him

Rom 5:14

eejjbbaassiivvlleeuusseenn

oJ qavnatoß ajpo© ∆Ada©mmevcri Mwu>sevwß

death reigned from Adam until Moses

➡2. Ingressive (Inceptive, Inchoative) Aorist

ExSyn 558–59

a. Definition. The aorist tense may be used to stress the beginning of an

action or the entrance into a state. Unlike the ingressive imperfect, there is no

implication that the action continues. This is simply left unstated. The ingressive

aorist is quite common.

b. Clarification and key to identification. This use of the aorist is usually shut

up to two kinds of verbs: (1) It occurs with stative verbs, in which the stress is on

entrance into the state. (2) It also occurs with verbs that denote activities, especially

in contexts where the action is introduced as a new item in the discourse. As the

key to identification, use began to do, became.

c. Illustrations

Matt 9:27

hhjjkkoolloouuvvqqhhssaann

aujtwç/ duvo tufloiv

two blind men began to follow him

Matt 22:7 oJ de© basileu©ß

wwjjrrggiivvssqqhh

now the king became angry

➡3. Consummative (Culminative, Ecbatic, Effective) Aorist

ExSyn 559–61

a. Definition. The aorist is often used to stress the cessation of an act or state.

Certain verbs, by their lexical nature, virtually require this usage. For example,

“he died” is usually not going to be an ingressive idea. The context also assists in

this usage at times; it may imply that an act was already in progress and the aorist

then brings the action to a conclusion.

The Aorist Tense 241

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b. Illustrations

Mark 5:39 to© paidivon oujk

aajjppeevvqqaanneenn

ajlla© kaqeuvdei

the little girl has not died, but is sleeping

The difference between the aorist and the present is clearly seen

in this dominical saying: The girl’s life is not at an end (aorist);

there is more to come (present).

Rev 5:5

eejjnniivvkkhhsseenn

oJ levwn oJ ejkthçß fulhçß ∆Iouvda

the Lion from the tribe of Judah has overcome

4. Epistolary Aorist

ExSyn 562–63

a. Definition. This is the use of the aorist indicative in NT letters in which

the author self-consciously describes his letter from the time frame of the audi-

ence. The aorist indicative of pevmpw is naturally used in this sense. This category

is not common, but it does have some exegetical significance.

b. Illustrations

Gal 6:11 i[dete phlivkoiß uJmiçn gravmmasin

ee[[ggrraayyaa

th/ç ejmh/ç ceiriv.

See with what large letters I have written to you, with my own

hand.

Phil 2:28

ee[[ppeemmyyaa

aujtovn I have sent him

This, of course, is from the standpoint of the readers, for Epa-

phroditus, the one being sent, was the one who would be car-

rying the letter to the Philippians.

5. Proleptic (Futuristic) Aorist ExSyn 563–64

a. Definition and clarification. The aorist indicative can be used to describe

an event that is not yet past as though it were already completed. This usage is

not common, though several exegetically significant texts involve possible pro-

leptic aorists.

An author sometimes uses an aorist for the future to stress the certainty of an

event. It involves a “rhetorical transfer” of a future event as though it were past.

b. Illustration

Rom 8:30 ou}ßde© ejdikaivwsen, touvtouß kai©

eejjddoovvxxaasseenn

those whom he justified, these he also glorified

From Paul’s perspective, the glorification of those who have

been declared righteous is as good as done.

6. Immediate Past Aorist/Dramatic Aorist ExSyn 564–65

a. Definition. The aorist indicative can be used of an event that happened

rather recently. Its force can usually be brought out with something like just now,

The Basics of New Testament Syntax242

For a detailed discussion of oijkodomhvqh in John 2:20 (viz., whether it is a constative or

consummative aorist), see ExSyn 560–61.

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as in just now I told you. This may be lexically colored (occurring with verbs of emo-

tion and understanding), but more often it is due to Semitic coloring, reflecting a

Semitic stative perfect. As well, it is sometimes difficult to tell whether the aorist

refers to the immediate past or to the present (dramatic).

b. Illustrations

Matt 9:18 a[rcwn ei|ßejlqw©n prosekuvnei aujtw/ç levgwn o{ti hJ qugavthr mou

a[rti

eejjtteelleeuuvvtthhsseenn

A certain ruler came and bowed down before him, saying, “My

daughter has just now died.”

Matt 26:65 i[de nuçn

hhjjkkoouuvvssaattee

th©n blasfhmivan

Behold, just now you heard his blasphemy

The Aorist Tense 243

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ExSyn 566–67

The Future Tense

Overview of Uses

➡ 1. Predictive Future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

2. Imperatival Future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

3. Deliberative Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

INTRODUCTION

With reference to aspect, the future seems to offer an external portrayal, some-

thing of a temporal counterpart to the aorist indicative.

The external portrayal

“presents an occurrence in summary, viewed as a whole from the outside, without

regard for the internal make-up of the occurrence.”

With reference to time, the future

tense is always future from the speaker’s presentation (or, when in a participial

form, in relation to the time of the main verb).

The future occurs in the indicative, participle, and infinitive forms in the NT,

though the bulk are indicatives.

In general, the future tense may be charted as follows (with respect to both

time and aspect):

244

See ExSyn 566–71. The following categories are sufficiently rare that the average inter-

mediate Greek student may ignore them: the gnomic future (see 571) and the future as equiv-

alent to a subjunctive (see 571).

Not all grammarians agree with this (tentative) assessment. For a discussion, see ExSyn

566–67.

Fanning, Verbal Aspect, 97.

ExSyn 568–71

SPECIFIC USES

➡1. Predictive Future ExSyn 568

a. Definition. The future tense may indicate that something will take place or

come to pass. The portrayal is external, summarizing the action: “it will happen.”

The predictive future is far and away the most common use of this tense.

b. Illustrations

Acts 1:11 ou|toß oJ ∆Ihsouçß ...

eejjlleeuuvvsseettaaii

this Jesus . . . will come

Diagram 67

The Force of the Future Tense

Past Present Future

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Phil 1:6 oJ ejnarxavmenoß ejnuJmiçne[rgon ajgaqo©n

eejjppiitteelleevvsseeii

a[cri hJmevraß

Cristouç ∆Ihsouç

the one who began a good work in you will perfect it until the

day of Christ Jesus

Wedged as it is between the past (ejnarxavmenoß) and an end-

point in the future (a[cri), the future tense seems to suggest a

progressive idea. But the future in itself says none of this.

2. Imperatival Future ExSyn 569–70

a. Definition. The future indicative is sometimes used for a command, almost

always in OT quotations (the result of a literal translation of the Hebrew). How-

ever, it was used in this manner even in classical Greek, though sparingly. Out-

side of Matthew, this usage is not common. The force of the imperatival future is

not identical with an imperative. Generally speaking, it has a universal, timeless,

and/or solemn force to it.

b. Illustrations

Matt 19:18 ouj

ffoonneeuuvvsseeiißß

,ouj

mmooiicceeuuvvsseeiißß

,ouj

kklleevvyyeeiißß

,ouj

yyeeuuddoommaarr--

ttuurrhhvvsseeiißß

You shall not murder, you shall not commit adultery, you

shall not steal, you shall not bear false witness.

1 Pet 1:16 a{gioi

ee[[sseessqqee

,o{ti ejgw© a{giovßeijmi

ou shall be holy, because I am holy

3. Deliberative Future

ExSyn 570

a. Definition. The deliberative future asks a question that implies some doubt

about the response. The question, asked in the first person singular or plural, is

generally either cognitive or volitional. Cognitive questions ask, “How will we?”

while volitional questions ask, “Should we?” Thus, the force of such questions is

one of “oughtness”—that is, possibility, desirability, or necessity. The aorist sub-

junctive is more common in deliberative questions than the future indicative.

b. Illustrations

Mark 6:37 ajgoravswmen dhnarivwn diakosivwn a[rtouß kai©

ddwwvvssoommeenn

auj-

toiçß fageiçn;

Should we buy two hundred denarii worth of food and give it

to them to eat?

Heb 2:3 pwçßhJmeiçß

eejjkkffeeuuxxoovvmmeeqqaa

thlikauvthß ajmelhvsanteß swthrivaß;

How shall we escape if we neglect so great a salvation?

The Future Tense 245

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The Perfect and Pluperfect Tenses

Overview of Tense Uses

The Perfect Tense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

➡ 1. Intensive Perfect (Resultative Perfect) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

➡ 2. Extensive Perfect (Consummative Perfect) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

3. Aoristic Perfect (Dramatic or Historical Perfect) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

➡ 4. Perfect with a Present Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

The Pluperfect Tense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

➡ 1. Intensive Pluperfect (Resultative Pluperfect) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

➡ 2. Extensive Pluperfect (Consummative Pluperfect) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

➡ 3. Pluperfect with a Simple Past Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

For the most part, the perfect and pluperfect tenses are identical in aspect

though different in time. Thus both speak of an event accomplished in the past (in

the indicative mood, that is) with results existing afterwards—the perfect speak-

ing of results existing in the present, the pluperfect speaking of results existing in

the past.

The aspect of the perfect and pluperfect is sometimes called stative, resultative,

completed, or perfective-stative. Whatever it is called, the kind of action portrayed

(in its unaffected meaning) is a combination of the external and internal aspects:

The action is presented externally (summary), while the resultant state proceeding

from the action is presented internally (continuous state).

As to time, note the treatments below under each tense.

The Perfect Tense

ExSyn 573–82

The primary uses of the perfect are easy to comprehend, though they are not

insignificant. As Moulton points out, the perfect tense is “the most important,

exegetically, of all the Greek Tenses.”

The perfect is used less frequently than

the present, aorist, future, or imperfect; when it is used, there is usually a delib-

erate choice on the part of the writer.

The force of the perfect tense is simply that it describes an event that, com-

pleted in the past (we are speaking of the perfect indicative here), has results exist-

ing in the present time (i.e., in relation to the time of the speaker). BDF suggest

that the perfect tense “combines in itself, so to speak, the present and the aorist

in that it denotes the continuance of completed action.”

It is incorrect, however, to

246

See ExSyn 572–86. The gnomic perfect (see 580), the proleptic or futuristic perfect (see

581), and the perfect of allegory (see 581–82) are sufficiently rare that the average intermedi-

ate Greek student may ignore them.

Moulton, Prolegomena, 140.

BDF, 175 (§340).

02_Basics.Part 2 4/16/04 1:32 PM Page 246

say that the perfect signifies abiding results; such conclusions belong to the realm

of theology, not grammar.

The Perfect and Pluperfect Tenses 247

The chart shows that the perfect may be viewed as combining the aspects of

both the aorist and present tense. It speaks of completed action (aorist) with exist-

ing results (present). The basic question to be asked is which of these aspects is

emphasized in a given context.

The uses of the perfect tense may be broken down into three main groups:

normative, collapsed, and specialized. The normative uses involve both the exter-

nal and internal aspects, but with a slightly different emphasis. The collapsed per-

fects are those that collapse (or suppress) either the internal or external aspect,

because of contextual or lexical interference, respectively. The specialized perfects

are rare uses that detour from the normal usage in a more pronounced way than

the collapsed perfects do.

➡1. Intensive Perfect (Resultative Perfect)

ExSyn 574–76

a. Definition. The perfect may be used to emphasize the results or present

state produced by a past action. The English present often is the best translation

for such a perfect. This is a common use of the perfect tense.

b. Caution. The average student learning NT Greek typically knows Greek

grammar better than English grammar after a couple of years of study. Conse-

quently, the aspect of the Greek perfect is sometimes imported into the English

perfect. That is, there is a tendency to see the English perfect as placing an

emphasis on existing results—a notion foreign to English grammar. One ought to

be careful when translating the perfect into English to resist the temptation of

translating it as an English perfect at all times. When so translated, the Greek

perfect should be extensive, not intensive.

c. Semantics/key to identification. This use of the perfect does not exclude

the notion of a completed act; rather, it focuses on the resultant state. Conse-

quently, stative verbs are especially used in this way. Often the best translation of

the intensive perfect is as a present tense. (Nevertheless, many perfects are open to

interpretation and could be treated either as intensive or extensive.) The only dif-

ference in the chart below and the previous chart (on the unaffected meaning of

the perfect) is that the resultant state is here emphasized.

Diagram 68

The Force of the Perfect

Note: The symbol (—————) indicates the results of an action.

Past Present Future

•(

————

)

02_Basics.Part 2 4/16/04 1:32 PM Page 247

d. Illustrations

Luke 5:20 a[nqrwpe,

aajjffeevvwwnnttaaiivv

soi aiJ aJmartivai sou

man, your sins are forgiven

ggeevvggrraappttaaii

Just as it is written, “There is none righteous, no, not one.”

This common introductory formula to OT quotations seems to

be used to emphasize that the written word still exists. It implies

a present and binding authority.

➡2. Extensive Perfect (Consummative Perfect) ExSyn 577

a. Definition. The perfect may be used to emphasize the completion of a past

action or the process from which a present state emerges. It should normally be

translated in English as a present perfect. This usage is common.

b. Semantics/key to identification. The emphasis is on the completed event

in the past time rather than the present results. As with the intensive perfect, this

does not mean that the other “half” of its aspect has disappeared, just that it does

not receive the greatest emphasis. For example,

eejjgghhvvggeerrttaaii

th/ç hJmevra/ th/ç trivth/

(“he has been raised on the third day”) in 1 Cor 15:4, though extensive, still

involves current implications for Paul’s audience. (Many perfects are open to

interpretation and could be treated either as intensive or extensive.) One key is

that transitive verbs often belong here.

The Basics of New Testament Syntax248

As contrasted with levgei, which seems to emphasize immediate applicability of the word.

Diagram 69

The Force of the Intensive Perfect

Past Present Future

()

c. Illustrations

John 1:34

eeJJwwvvrraakkaa

kai©

mmeemmaarrttuuvvrrhhkkaa

o{ti ou|tovßejstin oJ ejklektovß touç qeouç.

I have seen and I have testified that this is the elect one of God.

The portrayal of John’s testimony seems to place an emphasis

more on the completed event in the past than on the present

results. In other words, there is stress on his having seen enough

of Jesus [completed action] to make a reliable report.

Diagram 70

The Force of the Extensive Perfect

Past Present Future

•

(

—————

)

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