Unger M.P. Historical Dictionary of Choral Music
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82 • CICONIA, JOHANNES
finalis G), and Hypomixolydian (D–D, finalis G). Later, to account
for polyphony constructed on the tonal centers of C and A, Heinrich
Glarean added four more modes in his Dodechachordon (1547): Ae-
olian (A–A, finalis A), Hypoaeolian (E–E, finalis A), Ionian (C–C,
finalis C), and Hypoionian (G–G, finalis C).
CICONIA, JOHANNES (C. 1370–JUNE OR JULY 1412). Franco-
Flemish composer and theorist, active in Italy. His extant works in-
clude Gloria and Credo mass movements, motets, and secular songs
in French and Italian.
CIFRA, ANTONIO (1584–2 OCTOBER 1629). Italian composer.
For much of his life he was director of music at Santa Casa in Loreto
(which lies northeast of Rome and has historic ties to that city). From
1623 to 1626 he was music director at San Giovanni in Laterano
(Basilica of St. John Lateran), Rome. Like other composers of the
Roman school, he tended to be conservative—in his early psalm
settings, his litanies, and especially in his masses, which employ the
imitative style of the late Renaissance and have numerous canonic
movements. Cifra’s other works show more progressive tendencies.
He may therefore be regarded as an important transitional figure be-
tween the Renaissance and Baroque styles.
A prolific composer, his extant works for vocal ensemble include
two books of masses, eight books of concertato motets for two to
four voices, polychoral compositions (which modestly embrace the
new style), and six books of madrigals for five voices (the last two
with continuo). He also published two volumes of Italian sacred
scherzi (generally light works that show the development from the
madrigal to the newer monodic style) and five volumes of secular
ones for one to four voices and continuo.
CIMAROSA, DOMENICO (17 DECEMBER 1749–11 JANUARY
1801). Italian composer. He was famous for his comic operas, which
were performed throughout Europe, being unmatched at the time for
their freshness and vigor. After studying at the music conservatory
in Loreto, he worked in Naples (as an organist at the royal chapel),
Venice (as director of the Ospedaletto [see OSPEDALE] conserva-
tory), St. Petersburg (as director of music at the chapel at the court
of Catherine II), and Vienna (as director of music at the imperial
court chapel of Leopold II). He was imprisoned briefly during the
CLAUSULA • 83
French Revolutionary Wars. In addition to about 60 extant operas,
he left behind approximately half a dozen oratorios, a dozen motets,
approximately 20 masses, some secular cantatas, and a few other
secular works for chorus.
CLARKE, JEREMIAH (C. 1674–1 DECEMBER 1707). English
composer and organist; organist at St. Paul’s Cathedral from 1699;
joint organist with William Croft at the Chapel Royal from 1704,
succeeding John Blow. He is known chiefly for his church music,
which consists of 3 partial services and 20 anthems (almost all of
them of the “verse” type). Some of the anthems celebrate important
events of the time; for example, the full anthem Praise the Lord, O
Jerusalem, which was performed at the coronation of Queen Anne in
1702. Clarke also wrote at least 10 court odes, music for plays, many
songs and catches, and pieces for harpsichord. Most famous now is
the so-called Trumpet Voluntary, which became well-loved in an ar-
rangement for trumpet, organ, and drums made by Charles Wood,
who ascribed the original to Henry Purcell.
CLAUSEN, RENÉ (17 APRIL 1953– ). American choral conduc-
tor and composer. Since 1986 he has taught at Concordia College,
Moorhead, Minnesota, where he conducts The Concordia Choir, an
ensemble of national stature. In 1998 he founded the René Clausen
Choral School, now held each summer. He has described his own
compositional style as “varied and eclectic.” His many choral com-
positions, which are widely performed in the United States by choirs
of all types, range in difficulty and length; typically they are emotion-
ally evocative, with lush, quasi-impressionistic harmonies. He is in
regular demand as a commissioned composer, guest conductor, and
clinician.
CLAUSULA. The term was used in various ways during the Medieval
period, but is now used in its formal sense to designate passages in
discant style (employing the standardized rhythmic modes), appearing
in polyphonic chant settings at Notre Dame from about 1200, which
served as replacements for certain sections of preexisting melismatic
organum. The practice of writing such clausulae was reported by
Anonymous IV, a 13th-century English theorist, and examples are
found in works by Leoninus and Perotinus preserved in a volume
called the Magnus liber. In an attempt to modernize this collection,
84 • CLEMENS NON PAPA, JACOBUS
hundreds of clausulae were composed as substitutes for old-fashioned
passages, providing an avenue for compositional experimentation.
Some of Perotinus’s clausulae expanded the texture to three or even
four voices. Notated separately, clausulae tended to become indepen-
dent compositions. When new words were added to the upper line(s),
the Notre Dame motet was born.
CLEMENS NON PAPA, JACOBUS [CLEMENT, JACOB] (BORN
C. 1510–15; DIED 1555/56). Franco-Flemish composer. Although
many details of his life are uncertain, it is clear that he was a prolific
composer. His extant works include 15 masses for four or five voices
(almost all of them parody settings, some of them based on his own
motets and chansons), more than 230 motets (almost all for four
or five voices), 15 Magnificats (all for four voices), more than 150
Dutch psalm settings (for three voices, on metric texts with associ-
ated predetermined tunes that Clemens used as cantus firmi in one
or another of the voices), and more than 100 secular works, among
them, about 90 chansons for three to six voices.
Clemens’s writing (particularly in the masses and motets) typically
consists of dense imitative counterpoint. Some passages are particu-
larly chromatic. His music was widely disseminated after his death
and presumably had considerable influence on other composers.
Along with Nicolas Gombert, Thomas Crecquillon, and Adrian
Willaert, he was instrumental in establishing pervading imitation as
the basic contrapuntal technique of the 1500s.
CLEOBURY, STEPHEN. See KING’S COLLEGE CHOIR.
CLERAMBAULT, LOUIS NICOLAS (19 DECEMBER 1676–26
OCTOBER 1749). French composer and organist, famous espe-
cially for his French solo cantatas, which fused French and Italian
styles. His choral works include many motets, some of them for the
Maison Royale de Saint-Cyr, a school for girls near Versailles, where
Clerambault held a position as organist and teacher.
COLERIDGE-TAYLOR, SAMUEL (15 AUGUST 1875–1 SEP-
TEMBER 1912). English composer and conductor. The son of a
Sierra Leone physician, he was raised by his English mother after his
father returned to Africa. Shortly after studies with Charles Villiers
Stanford at the Royal College of Music, he achieved international
recognition with the cantata Hiawatha’s Wedding Feast (1898), a
COMPÈRE, LOYSET • 85
work whose exotic orientation was much in vogue at the time. It
was followed by The Death of Minnehaha (1899) and Hiawatha’s
Departure (1900). The success of these compositions led to many
festival commissions. Subsequent works included The Blind Girl
of Castél-Cuillé (1901), Meg Blane (1902), The Atonement (1903),
Five Choral Ballads (1905), Kubla Khan (1906), “Bon-Bon” Suite
(1909), Endymion’s Dream (1910), and A Tale of Old Japan (1911).
However, none of them were as successful as the Hiawatha trilogy.
He also wrote numerous partsongs and choruses; among them is Sea
Drift, a choral rhapsody for eight voices (1908).
A fine conductor, Coleridge-Taylor directed the Handel Society
(from 1904 until his death), the Westmorland Festival (1901–4),
and many choral and orchestral societies. He made three trips to the
United States, where he was known as the “black Mahler.”
COLLEGIUM MUSICUM. Originating in 16th-century Germany,
the term referred to an organization of music enthusiasts who gave
concerts in informal settings such as coffeehouses, public gardens,
or the homes of noble patrons. Leipzig had several important student
collegia musica, the most famous of which were those established
by Georg Philipp Telemann (1702) and Johann Friedrich Fasch
(1708). During the 18th century the collegium musicum evolved into
the public concert (with its paying audience), and after 1750 the term
was gradually abandoned. However, as interest in historical perfor-
mance rose after 1900, the term was revived, especially in academic
contexts.
COMPÈRE, LOYSET (C. 1445–16 AUGUST 1518). French com-
poser. A contemporary of Josquin des Prez, he was instrumental in
bringing the light Italian style to France. His works were disseminated
widely in print. A native of Hainaut (a historical region in the Low
Countries, now a province in southwestern Belgium), he worked for
a short time at the court of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, the Duke of Mi-
lan, and then for much of the rest of his career at the French court of
Charles VIII, whom he accompanied on the French invasion of Italy
in 1494. He later held church positions in Cambrai and Douai.
Compère is known primarily for his chansons and his motets,
which vary in style. Some of his chansons are of the older three-voice
Burgundian type. Others borrow the newer style of the four-voice
Italian frottola (characterized by a light text, syllabic declamation,
86 • CONCENTUS MUSICUS WIEN
and chordal texture), while still others resemble the three-voice
motets of the Medieval era, combining a Latin cantus firmus with
two upper voices carrying a French text. His motets, too, show an
evolving style. Some are of the older style, in which a cantus firmus
provides structure; others are free motets: without cantus firmus,
and written in the newer Italian, text-influenced style, in which each
phrase of text is presented in turn, in a variety of textures. His other
extant works include two complete masses, and four complete Mag-
nificats.
CONCENTUS MUSICUS WIEN. See HARNONCOURT, NIKO-
LAUS.
CONCERT SPIRITUEL. A Parisian series of public concerts, one of
the first in existence. It was founded in 1725 to present a mix of sa-
cred choral pieces and virtuosic instrumental works during Lent and
religious holidays when theatrical establishments were closed. Later
programs included secular French works as well. For many years the
concerts occurred in the Salle des Cent Suisses (Hall of the Hundred
Swiss Guards) in the Tuileries Palace. The original series ended in
1790 with the French Revolution. After 1805 concerts of the same
name were given in various European cities.
CONCERTANTE. In the Baroque era it was more or less synonymous
with concertato, signifying groups of performers (often instruments
and vocalists) performing together in a contrasting way—especially
soloists versus tutti. In this way it is closely related to the concerto.
CONCERTATO STYLE, CONCERTED STYLE. A Baroque style
that implied the interaction of diverse instrumental and vocal forces
and contrasting textures. See also CONCERTANTE; CONCERTO.
CONCERTO (VOCAL CONCERTO). In the 1600s the term indi-
cated a vocal piece accompanied by instruments. See also SACRED
CONCERTO.
CONCITATO [STILE CONCITATO]. “Agitated” style invented (or
“rediscovered”) by Claudio Monteverdi for his eighth book of mad-
rigals (Madrigali guerrieri ed amorosi, 1638). It is characterized in
particular by a “combat motive” of repeated 16th notes. Later exam-
ples may be found in Johann Sebastian Bach’s St. Matthew Passion
(“Sind Blitze, sind Donner”) and in George Frideric Handel’s Dixit
Dominus (“implebit ruinas . . . conquassabit capita”).
COOKE, HENRY • 87
CONDUCTUS. A medieval Latin song in measured rhythm, usually
with sacred text. It may have been used to accompany processional
movement in the liturgy. In the late 12th and early 13th century, Pari-
sian composers of the so-called Notre Dame School cultivated poly-
phonic settings. Distinguishing characteristics include a newly com-
posed tenor, and a similarity of rhythmic and melodic material among
voices. Some conducti are homorhythmic, with syllabic text-setting
throughout. The majority, however, are embellished with melismatic
passages called caudae (singular: cauda, Latin for “tail”). During the
13th century, the conductus was superseded by the motet.
CONSORT SONG. A song for voice(s) accompanied by a consort of
viols in 16th- and 17th-century England.
CONTINUO. See BASSO CONTINUO.
CONTRAFACTUM (PL. CONTRAFACTA). A vocal piece in
which the original text has been replaced by a new one with little if
any change to the music—usually a sacred text replacing a secular
one. Such adaptation of secular pieces for sacred use was especially
common in the 15th and 16th centuries. For example, Italian frottole
were turned into laude. In Protestant areas, chansons or other secular
pieces were given sacred texts so that they could be used as congre-
gational songs, and Catholic pieces were given new words to fit Prot-
estant theology. During the Baroque era, composers often reworked
secular pieces for sacred use, carefully retaining the basic emotional
tone (affect) of the original. Because such adaptations involved more
than simply changing the text, they are usually called parodies.
CONTRAPUNTAL. See COUNTERPOINT.
CONTRAPUNTIST. One who writes counterpoint.
COOKE, ARNOLD (4 NOVEMBER 1906–13 AUGUST 2005).
English composer who studied with Paul Hindemith and wrote in
a contrapuntal style that avoided serialism. Choral works include
Holderneth, for Bar., SATB, and orch. (1934); Ode on St. Cecilia’s
Day, for S, T, B, SATB, orch., and org. (1964); A Jacobean Suite, for
SATB (1976); as well as partsongs and anthems.
COOKE, HENRY (C. 1615–13 JULY 1672). English singer, choir
trainer, and composer. Known as Captain Henry Cooke because of his
rank in the Royalist forces during the Civil War, Cooke reestablished
88 • COPLAND, AARON
the choir of the Chapel Royal in England after the Restoration (1660).
As Master of the Children he conscripted young choristers, including
Pelham Humfrey, Michael Wise, John Blow, Thomas Tudway, and
William Turner, all of whom became leaders of the next generation
of musicians. Known as an excellent bass singer in the Italian manner,
Cooke brought the choir to perfection within a decade. Of his composi-
tions about a dozen anthems survive, almost all of them verse anthems
(most of these with instrumental preludes and ritornellos). They dem-
onstrate Italian influence in their harmonies, and show Cooke’s fond-
ness for full sonorities in which voices are divided into multiple parts.
COPLAND, AARON (14 NOVEMBER 1900–2 DECEMBER 1990).
American composer, writer, pianist, lecturer, and conductor. The son
of Jewish immigrants from Russia, he developed his musical skills
through private studies in the United States (with Rubin Goldmark)
and in France (with Nadia Boulanger), by attending many concert,
opera, and ballet performances, and by studying the scores of others.
Instead of taking a university teaching position he supported himself
with composition, organizing concerts, conducting, writing, and
lecturing. Public acceptance came slowly at first. However, by the
late 1940s, with support from leading musicians, patrons, and critics,
he had come to be regarded as the foremost composer in the United
States. A strong musical nationalist who championed American mu-
sic—incorporating jazz and folk elements into his compositions to
give them a uniquely American voice, he served as a mentor to many
younger American composers (especially Leonard Bernstein), and
his influence continued to grow both at home and abroad.
Copland’s choral works, which are largely overshadowed by his
instrumental compositions (especially the ballets, operas, orchestral
music, and music for film), include Four Motets (on biblical texts),
for SATB (1921); An Immorality, for S, SSA, and pf. (1925); Lark,
for B and SATB (1938); Las agachadas (The Shake-Down Song), for
SSAATTBB (1942); two choruses on texts by Ira Gershwin from the
1943 film The North Star: Song of the Guerrillas, for Bar., TTBB,
and pf., and the Younger Generation, for SATB and pf.; In the Be-
ginning, for Mez. and SATB (1947); two popular choruses from the
opera The Tender Land: Stomp Your Foot, for SATB with 4-hand
piano (1943), and The Promise of Living, for SATBB/TTBB with 4-
hand piano (1954), both arranged for chorus and orchestra in 1954; In
CORNELIUS, PETER • 89
the Beginning, for Mez., and SATB (1947); and Canticle of Freedom
(1955). See also FINE, IRVING.
CORI SPEZZATI [IT. “SPLIT CHOIRS”]. See POLYCHORAL
STYLE.
CORIGLIANO, JOHN (16 FEBRUARY 1938– ). American com-
poser. The son of a former concertmaster of the New York Philhar-
monic, he has achieved widespread recognition for his compositions.
Among his many awards and honors are a Guggenheim Fellowship,
Grammy awards, the Pulitzer Prize, and an Academy Award. His
strong commitment to communication combined with a love for the
theatrical, his collaborative forays into such avenues as film scoring,
and his gift for orchestration and lyricism have resulted in works with
broad appeal even while utilizing a wide range of complex musical
materials and techniques. Choral works include the choral symphony
A Dylan Thomas Trilogy (1960–76); Fern Hill, for Mez., SATB, and
orch./pf.; Poem on his Birthday, for Bar., SATB, and orch./pf.; What
I Expected Was . . . , for SATB, brass, and perc. (1962); Psalm VIII,
for SATB and org. (1976); Of Rage and Remembrance (a memorial
to the victims of AIDS), for Tr., Mez., TTBB, str., and perc. (1991);
Amen, for 2 SATB (1994); Liebeslied, for SATB and pf. 4 hands
(1996); Salute, for SATB and 24 kazoos (2005); and some works for
single voice rearranged for choir, among others.
CORNELIUS, PETER (24 DECEMBER 1824–26 OCTOBER 1874).
German composer, poet, writer on music, and translator, best known
for the comic opera Der Barbier von Bagdad. He came from a literary
and acting family, and throughout his life he was equally interested
in poetry and music. After private studies in composition in Berlin
(where he met Felix Mendelssohn), he joined Franz Liszt’s Weimar
circle in 1853, where he composed, translated works for Liszt and
Hector Berlioz, and wrote in support of the “New German School.”
In 1858 Liszt conducted the premiere of his opera Der Barbier von
Bagdad. Due to a hostile demonstration encouraged by the theater
director, the performance was a failure, leading to Liszt’s resignation
from the opera, and ultimately to both men’s departure from Weimar.
In 1859 Cornelius moved to Vienna, where he developed a friendship
with Richard Wagner, assisting him in various ways and continuing
to compose and to work as a translator. In 1864 he followed Wagner
90 • CORNYSH, WILLIAM
to Munich, where he taught harmony and rhetoric at the Royal School
of Music, while continuing to compose.
Despite his support of the progressive music of Liszt and Wagner,
Cornelius was no blind follower but aimed for a fair-minded and
individual response, both in his musical composition and in his theo-
retical writing. His dual interest in literature and music is reflected
not only in his operas but also in some 80 songs (on texts of his own)
and in his choral works, which include some 15 compositions (or sets
of compositions) for male chorus and another 26 for mixed chorus.
Most are on nonreligious texts. Of the sacred works, most set Latin
texts (despite his Lutheran faith), and are in a conservative style,
having been written before he went to Weimar. Noteworthy later
works include the Requiem (Seele, vergiss sie nicht), for SSATBB
(1863, rev. 1870–72, written in memory of the poet Friedrich Hebbel
using the latter’s poem); Drei Psalmlieder, op. 13, for SATB (1872,
rev. 1873), modeled after keyboard pieces by Johann Sebastian
Bach; the chromatic Drei Männerchöre, op. 12, for TTBB, TTBB
(1872–73); and Reiterlied, op. 17, for SATB (1873), modeled after a
Franz Schubert march.
CORNYSH, WILLIAM (DIED 1523). English composer, poet, play-
wright, and actor. He served as a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal,
where he became Master of the Children in 1509, a position he held
until his death. He was also heavily involved in theatrical entertain-
ments at the royal court. His extant works for vocal ensemble include
16 secular partsongs for three and four voices. Of the few sacred
works attributed to him (or to another man of the same name), five
appear in the Eton Choirbook, an important source of Latin sacred
music in England, compiled just before 1500.
CORTECCIA, FRANCESCO (27 JULY 1502–7 JUNE 1571). Ital-
ian composer and organist. Active at the court of Duke Cosimo de’
Medici in Florence, he published three collections of madrigals (the
first two volumes for four voices, the third volume for five and six
voices). He also published two books each of responsories (for three
to five voices) and motets (for five and six voices), which include
two motet Passions.
COSTELEY, GUILLAUME (C. 1530–28 JANUARY 1606). French
composer. For much of his life he served as composer to the court of
COURAUD, MARCEL • 91
Charles IX. He was a founding member of the Académie de Poésie et
de Musique (chartered by the king in 1570), which met at the home
of the poet Jean-Antoine de Baïf for the purpose of reviving Classical
Greek and Roman poetry and music. Costeley was most famous for
the 100 chansons (almost all for four voices) and 3 motets (for three
to five voices) that appeared in a large publication of 1570 entitled
Musique de Guillaume Costeley . . . . He is also noteworthy for his
experimentation with microtonal composition. His works show a
preference for unusual harmonic and melodic intervals (documented
by the careful notation of accidentals) and counterpoint that appears
to be harmonically conceived.
COUNTERPOINT (ADJ. CONTRAPUNTAL). A composition or
passage of music comprised of multiple simultaneous melodic parts.
In such a piece the melodic interaction among the lines is more sig-
nificant than the chords that result—it is “horizontally conceived.”
While counterpoint and polyphony are more or less synonymous,
the former term is generally used for music after 1600, the latter one
for music before that date. After 1600, as composers concentrated
increasingly on harmonic considerations, counterpoint became less
important as an organizing principle. See also CANON; CANTUS
FIRMUS; FUGUE; POINTS OF IMITATION; ROUND.
COUPERIN, FRANÇOIS (10 NOVEMBER 1668–11 SEPTEMBER
1733). French composer, organist, and harpsichordist. He succeeded
his father as organist at St. Gervais Church in Paris, and in 1693 he
commenced additional service as an organist at the court of Louis
XIV. He also became active as a court composer, and as a teacher of
harpsichord and organ. His harpsichord music, much of it published
during his lifetime, was widely known abroad. His vocal music was
presumably composed for the royal court and chapel. Unfortunately
the motets for grand choeur are lost. The other vocal ensemble music
is for soloists—petits motets, versets, and Leçons de tenébres (Lam-
entations for Tenebrae services), and a few canonic pieces.
COURAUD, MARCEL (20 OCTOBER 1912–14 SEPTEMBER
1986). French conductor. In 1945 he founded the Marcel Couraud
Vocal Ensemble, which made several recordings before disbanding
in 1954. In 1967 he became director of the choirs at the Office de Ra-
diodiffusion Télévision Française (ORTF), where he organized three