Unger M.P. Historical Dictionary of Choral Music

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72 • CHEIRONOMY

as a conductor, bringing Mexico’s music to the rest of the world. In

his own works he combined indigenous elements (though usually

without actually quoting folk material) with modern compositional

techniques.

Examples of his choral works with Spanish texts include El sol,

corrido mexicano, for SATB, orch./SATB ad lib., and band (1934);

Llamadas, sinfonía proletaria, for SATB and orch. (1934); and La

paloma azul, for SATB and pf./small orch. (1940). Pieces on Eng-

lish texts include three 1942 works for unaccompanied chorus: Ah,

Freedom!, Three Nocturnes, and A Woman Is a Worthy Thing (1942);

the cantata Prometheus Bound, for A, T, Bar., B, SATB, and orch.

(1956); and four unaccompanied pieces from 1974: Epistle, A Pasto-

ral, Rarely, and The Waning Moon.

CHEIRONOMY. A system of gestures outlining melodic shapes to

guide a musical performance (especially in oral traditions); in mod-

ern Western practice the term refers to the conducting of Gregorian

chant.

CHERUBINI, LUIGI (14 SEPTEMBER 1760–15 MARCH 1842).

Italian composer, conductor, educator, administrator, and theorist,

who settled in France. Beginning his career in his native Florence, he

experienced early success with his operas, which led to opportunities

abroad, first in England, then France, and later Austria. In 1786 he

settled in Paris, where the political turmoil of the French Revolution

greatly affected his career. His ability to adapt to successive regimes

served him in good stead, however, and he became a preeminent mu-

sical figure in that country. From 1815 (when Louis XVIII returned

to power for the second time) until 1830, Cherubini served as a su-

perintendent of the royal chapel. During the next years (1816–22) he

focused almost exclusively on sacred works. From 1822 until 1842

he served as director of the Paris Conservatory, which he helped re-

organize and reinvigorate. In 1835 he published his main theoretical

work, Cours de contrepoint et de fugue. Famous primarily for his op-

eras, Cherubini also composed a significant amount of sacred music.

His native Italian style matured under the successive international

influences of Parisian opera, Viennese classicism, and Renaissance

polyphony. He was a gifted contrapuntalist and orchestrator, and

he liked bold harmonic progressions.

CHILCOTT, ROBERT • 73

Cherubini’s extant vocal ensemble works include at least 10 se-

curely attributed masses (among them, two requiem settings) plus

3 early Kyrie-Gloria pairs, all with orchestra, more than 50 smaller

sacred works (a significant number with orchestra), some two dozen

cantatas and ceremonial pieces, and a set of 63 canons, written be-

fore he left Florence.

In 1804 Cherubini conducted the Parisian premiere of Wolfgang

Amadeus Mozart’s Requiem. His own Requiem in C minor was

composed for the anniversary of the execution of Louis XVI (1817).

Atypically, it contains no soloists. Because it was later criticized for

including women’s voices, Cherubini followed it with his Requiem

in D minor, for male chorus and orchestra.

CHESNOKOV [TSCHESNOKOFF], PAVEL (12 OR 24 OCTO-

BER 1877–14 MARCH 1944). Russian choral composer and con-

ductor. Associated as a student and later as teacher with the Moscow

Synodal School of Church Singing, he composed more than 500 cho-

ral works, most of them sacred. Although his work as a church musi-

cian came to a virtual halt after the formation of the Soviet Union in

1917, he continued to work publicly as a conductor and teacher. He

is best known in North America for the communion hymn Salvation

Is Created.

CHICAGO SYMPHONY CHORUS. Chorus resident in Chicago. It

was founded in 1957 when Fritz Reiner, conductor of the Chicago

Symphony Orchestra, recruited Margaret Hillis to organize a sym-

phony chorus. Under her meticulous leadership the choir won nine

Grammy awards. In 1994 Duain Wolfe became conductor.

CHILCOTT, ROBERT [BOB] (9 APRIL 1955– ). English com-

poser, arranger, teacher, and conductor. In 1997, after singing as a

tenor with the King’s Singers, Chilcott began working full time as a

composer and arranger. He has since been involved with numerous

conducting projects and workshops around the world, especially with

children’s and youth choirs. Over 100 of his choral works (original

works as well as arrangements) have been published by Oxford

University Press. Larger works include The Making of the Drum, a

cantata for SATB and perc. (1985); Jubilate, for S/T, SATB, brass,

pf., and timp. (1999); and Canticles of Light, for SATB, treble choir,

and orch. or org. and tubular bells (2000).

74 • CHILD, WILLIAM

CHILD, WILLIAM (1606/7–23 MARCH 1697). English organist

and composer. He was an organist at St. George’s Chapel, Windsor,

until relieved of his duties during the English Civil War. At the Res-

toration he returned to his former post, and also accepted an organ

position at the Chapel Royal. He was influential in introducing the

Baroque style into English musical compositions, and especially in

helping to reestablish an English church choral tradition after the

Commonwealth. His works include a published collection of psalm

settings with continuo (1639), some 16 services (some incomplete)

13 motets (with continuo), 80 anthems (of both full and verse types),

and a few secular vocal pieces.

CHOIRBOOK. A large music book in which the parts of a vocal com-

position are notated separately on the facing pages, so that the sing-

ers can share a single book, reading their respective parts. Often the

soprano and tenor parts appear on the left-hand page, the alto bass on

the right-hand page. Choirbook format was common in the Medieval

and Renaissance eras.

CHOIRMASTER. Choral music director, especially the director of a

church choir. See also CHORUS MASTER.

CHORAL FESTIVALS. The phenomenon of large choral festivals

(usually for amateur singers) originated in the latter half of the 18th

century in England, growing out of a veneration for George Frideric

Handel’s oratorios. Of particular importance was the Three Choirs

Festival, founded probably in 1713. Rotating among the towns of

Gloucester, Worcester, and Hereford, the annual festival performed

oratorios and other works with the combined choirs of the towns’

three cathedrals.

As festivals proliferated across Europe and in North America, they

soon broadened their focus to include the works of other compos-

ers. In certain countries and at certain times, festivals (such as those

held in Estonia every five years during the Soviet years [1944–91])

played an important role in supporting national identity. International

competitive festivals became common, allowing choirs to compare

repertoire and standards of performance, share goodwill, and boost

their stature at home. Examples of modern-day invitational choral

festivals include the Cork International Choral Festival (Cork, Ire-

land), the International Musical Eisteddfod (Wales, UK), the Inter-

CHORAL JOURNAL • 75

national Choral Kathaumixw (British Columbia, Canada), and the

triennial International Choral Festival of Missoula, Montana, among

many others. Examples of festivals with resident choruses include

the Carmel Bach Festival (Carmel, California), the May Festival

(Cincinnati, Ohio), and the Oregon Bach Festival (Eugene, Oregon),

to name just a few.

CHORAL GROUPS. See AMERICAN BOYCHOIR; BBC SING-

ERS; BOYS CHOIR OF HARLEM; CAPPELLA GIULIA; CAP-

PELLA SISTINA; CHICAGO SYMPHONY CHORUS; DANISH

NATIONAL RADIO CHOIR; DAWSON, WILLIAM; DENNARD,

BRAZEAL; DESSOFF CHOIRS; ERICSON, ERIC; ESTONIAN

PHILHARMONIC CHAMBER CHOIR; FISK JUBILEE SING-

ERS; GREGG SMITH SINGERS; HARNONCOURT, NIKOLAUS;

HARVARD GLEE CLUB; HILLIER, PAUL; HOGAN, MOSES;

ISELER, ELMER; KAMMERCHOR STUTTGART; KING’S COL-

LEGE CHOIR (CAMBRIDGE); KING’S SINGERS; KOOPMAN,

TON; KRAKOW CHAMBER CHOIR; LOOMER, DIANE; LOS

ANGELES MASTER CHORALE; LUBOFF, NORMAN; MON-

TEVERDI CHOIR; MORMON TABERNACLE CHOIR; NETH-

ERLANDS CHAMBER CHOIR; NEUEN, DONALD; NOBLE,

WESTON; ORPHEI DRÄNGAR; PARROTT, ANDREW; PHILIP-

PINE MADRIGAL SINGERS; PORCO, ROBERT; RADCLIFFE

CHORAL SOCIETY; RED ARMY CHORUS; SAINT OLAF

CHOIR; SAINT PAUL’S CATHEDRAL CHOIR OF LONDON;

SHAW, ROBERT; SINGING CITY; SINGING SERGEANTS; SIX-

TEEN, THE; SUZUKI, MASAAKI; SWEDISH RADIO CHOIR;

SWINGLE, WARD; TALLIS SCHOLARS; TAPIOLA CHAMBER

CHOIR; TAPIOLA CHILDREN’S CHOIR; THOMANERCHOR

LEIPZIG; TURTLE CREEK CHORALE; UNITED STATES ARMY

CHORUS; UNITED STATES NAVY CHORUS; UNIVERSITY OF

MICHIGAN GLEE CLUB; VANCOUVER CHAMBER CHOIR;

WAGNER, ROGER; WARLAND, DALE; WESTENBERG, RICH-

ARD; WESTMINSTER ABBEY CHOIR; WESTMINSTER CA-

THEDRAL CHOIR OF LONDON; WESTMINSTER CHOIR COL-

LEGE; WIENER SÄNGERKNABEN (VIENNA BOYS CHOIR).

CHORAL JOURNAL. Official publication of the American Choral

Directors Association (ACDA).

76 • CHORAL ORGANIZATIONS

CHORAL ORGANIZATIONS. National and international choral or-

ganizations, which provide resources for choral conductors and their

choirs, including newsletters, journals, conferences, festivals, and on-

line resources. Among the organizations listed by the online resource

site, choralnet.org, are the following:

National or International Choral Organizations

Europa Cantat—European Federation of Young Choirs

Federacion Coral del Caribe y Centroamerica (San Juan, Puerto Rico)

International Federation for Choral Music

International Society for Children’s Choral and Performing Arts

Pueri Cantores International

Zentralstelle für den deutschsprachigen Chorgesang in der Welt

(German-speaking choirs)

Africa: African Christian Choirs Network

Argentina: Fundación TAKIAN CAY

Asia Pacific Regional Secretariat of IFCM

Australia: ANCA—Australian National Choral Association, Austra-

lian Intervarsity Choral Societies’ Association (AICSA)

Belgium & Flanders: oor & Stem

Canada: Association of Canadian Choral Conductors

Denmark: ChoralDenmark

Finland: SULASOL—Finnish Confederation of Choirs

France: A Coeur Joie International; Fédération Française des Petits

Chanteurs (Pueri Cantores)

Germany: Arbeitskreis Musik in der Jugend (AMJ); DAS-Bund

(Deutscher Allgemeiner Sängerbund), Deutscher Sängerbund,

Deutsches Centrum für Chormusik, e.V.; Verband Deutscher

Konzertchöre

Great Britain: ABCD—The Association of British Choral Directors;

British Choral Institute; National Association of Choirs; Sing for

Pleasure (A Coeur Joie—England)

Greece: Hellenic Choirs Association

Ireland: Cumann Náisiúnta na gCór/Association of Irish Choirs

(CNC)

Israel: The Israeli Choral Organization (ISCO),

Italy: CANTinCORO; FE.N.I.A.R.CO. Federazione Nazionale Italiana

Associazioni Regionali Corali; Federazione Italiana Pueri Cantores

Japan: Japan Choral Association

Mexico: Fundación Coral Mexicana; Voce in Tempore

CHORAL ORGANIZATIONS • 77

Netherlands: Pueri Cantores of the Netherlands; SNK—Samenwerk-

ende Nederlandse Korenorganisaties

Nigeria: Universal Choral Organization

Norway: Norges Körförbund/Norwegian Choir Association

Poland: The Polish Union Of Choirs And Orchestras—Mazovian

Department

Puerto Rico: Sociedad Coral de Puerto Rico, Inc.

South Africa: Die Suid-Afrikaanse Koorvereniging/The South Afri-

can Choral Society

Sweden: Swedish Choral Directors Association

Switzerland: A Coeur Joie Suisse; Pueri Cantores Switzerland

U.S.: American Choral Directors Association; The American Fed-

eration of Pueri Cantores; Chorus America

Specialized Areas of Choral Music

Associated Male Choruses of America

l’ Association pour la promotion de l’art cantorial (Hazanout and

other Jewish music in France)

Associazione Internazionale Studi di Canto Gregoriano (Gregorian

chant)

Barbershop: The British Association of Barbershop Singers; HarmoNet

Central; Harmonize.ws; SPEBSQSA; Sweet Adelines International

The Boychoir Symposium

CASA—Contemporary A cappella Society of America

Choirs at Work (corporate choirs and other workplace singing)

Choristers Guild (children’s choirs, mostly in worship)

FASOLA (Sacred Harp/Shape Note Singing)

Gay/lesbian choirs: GALA Choruses, Inc.; Sing Out (association of

gay and lesbian choirs in the UK and Ireland)

Intercollegiate Men’s Choruses

Jazz Choral (France)

National Convention of Gospel Choirs and Choruses Inc.

Schweizerischer Kirchengesangsbund

Sister Singers Network (feminist choirs)

Urban Harmony Movement (building community in cities through a

cappella singing)

YouthCue (resource for church youth choirs)

Zamir Choral Foundation (Jewish music)

See also SINGING SOCIETIES.

78 • CHORAL POLYPHONY

CHORAL POLYPHONY. Polyphony sung by multiple singers on

each part. When polyphony first appeared in sacred music during the

Medieval era, it was performed by soloists, alternating with unison

chant sung by the choir. This practice can be inferred from “unus”

and “chorus” designations in manuscripts of the time. The earliest

sources to use these terms in a totally polyphonic texture (suggest-

ing that the choir was now singing some of the polyphonic sections)

are Italian (though they contain many works by non-Italians) and

date from c. 1430. In some of the most careful, early manuscripts,

two-part texture (in which each line has a text and is marked “unus”)

alternates with three-part texture (in which only the top line has a

text and is marked “chorus”), suggesting that the lower parts of the

“choral” passages were not sung after all, but performed on instru-

ments. Other polyphonic works of the time, however, suggest by the

placement of their texts and the style of their music that all lines were

expected to be sung by choristers.

While the responsorial alternation of soloists and choir remained

a significant feature of sacred choral music for centuries, it was not

long after the end of the Medieval era (1450) that sacred polyphony

became the domain of choirs, as evidenced by the appearance of

much larger choirbooks, designed, no doubt, to allow more singers

to read from a single book. The facts regarding the origins of choral

polyphony were outlined authoritatively first by Manfred Bukofzer

in “The Beginnings of Choral Polyphony,” Studies in Medieval and

Renaissance Music (New York, 1950), 176–89.

CHORAL RECITATIVE. See RECITATIVE.

CHORAL SOCIETIES. See SINGING SOCIETIES.

CHORAL SYMPHONY. A symphony in which a chorus is used. Lud-

wig van Beethoven established the genre with his Ninth Symphony,

and many succeeding composers have incorporated soloists and chorus

in their symphonies. Additional examples include Franz Liszt, Dante

Symphony and Faust Symphony; Ralph Vaughan Williams, A Sea

Symphony; Gustav Holst, First Choral Symphony; Gustav Mahler,

Symphonies nos. 2, 3, and 8; Benjamin Britten, Spring Symphony; and

Dmitri Shostakovich, Symphonies nos. 2, 3, and 13; among others.

CHORAL TONE. The sound ideal practiced by a particular chorus or

choral tradition. Not surprisingly, these vary from one culture to an-

CHORAL TONE • 79

other. While most choral directors strive for homogeneity of tone, they

often do not agree on the standards of vocal beauty, or the means by

which these are achieved. According to Howard Swan, six schools of

choral singing can be identified in North America (see “The Develop-

ment of a Choral Instrument,” in Choral Conducting: A Symposium,

2nd ed., Harold Decker and Julius Herford, eds., [Englewood Cliffs,

N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1988]). Because they proceed from somewhat

different premises, the techniques they employ (and hence, also, the

results they obtain) differ. The six approaches are summarized here.

1. Primary emphasis is placed on the personal, intellectual, and

musical development of the individual chorister. Allowances are

made for differences among voices. The goal is a big, rich sound

that can balance an orchestra. Accordingly, singers are encour-

aged to exert considerable physical energy. Vocal sections are

balanced according to a “pyramid of sound,” in which the lower

voices predominate. This approach was cultivated by John Fin-

ley Williamson, founder of the Westminster Choir School.

2. The chorus is seen as analogous to an orchestra, exhibiting a

palette of individual timbres related to instrument families of the

orchestra. Extensive, systematic vocalization is employed to de-

velop these colors. Lyricism is preferred and blend emphasized,

making this approach particularly suitable for sacred polyphony.

It was taught by William J. Finn, founder of the Paulist’s Choris-

ters of Chicago and New York (an ensemble of men and boys).

3. Beauty of choral tone is primary. Individual vocal character-

istics and preferences are subordinated to the sound of the en-

semble. Homogeneity of sound (blend) is a fundamental objec-

tive, and singers are encouraged to match each others’ voices,

limiting their vibrato. This approach was initially cultivated by

F. Melius Christiansen and continues with his followers. It is

historically linked to the Scandinavian choral tradition from

which Christiansen came.

4. A beautiful and unified choral delivery is developed from the

natural principles of clearly enunciated speech. Vowels and

consonants are exaggerated, and attention is given to their

individual shapes, pitches, durations, and connections. This ap-

proach was cultivated by Fred Waring, who invented a system

of “tone syllables” to teach it.

80 • CHORAL TRAINING

5. Scientific principles of physiology and acoustics are followed

to realize the latent potential of each individual voice—a peda-

gogical goal that is especially important for solo singing. The

entire physical mechanism of vocal production is motivated and

coordinated to produce the sound. Vocal objectives include in-

creased range and volume, improved tone quality (resonance),

coordination of registers, and a natural vibrato. This overall

approach is practiced by voice teachers (though individual

teachers may disagree about specifics) and by conductors who

believe that choristers should not be asked to hold their voices

in check. The resulting sound is powerful but often lacking in

blend.

6. Principles of vocal production are combined with rhythmic drive

and the interpretive demands of the individual musical score to

produce a flexible choral tone that can be varied from composi-

tion to composition for the purpose of dramatic integrity. This

approach is identified with Robert Shaw, for whom musical

communication was primary, and who integrated approaches to

pitch, tone, dynamics, speech, and rhythm to achieve it.

CHORAL TRAINING. Choral conductors in Europe have histori-

cally been trained at conservatories, while musicologists studied at

universities. Accordingly, European conservatory programs stress

the practice of music-making—most of a student’s time is spent in

individual lessons (e.g., voice and keyboard), coaching sessions, en-

semble rehearsals, and individual practice. Even theory and history

classes tend to be small and loosely structured, with considerable

latitude given to the teacher regarding schedule, assessment, and cur-

riculum. Examinations are kept to a minimum.

In the United States, during the latter half of the 20th century,

choral degree programs leading to the Doctor of Musical Arts (DMA)

degree were established as performance-oriented counterparts to

programs leading to the Ph.D. degree. Much more structured than

European conservatory programs, they aim at addressing in balanced

measure the increasing scholarly demands of choral performance

and the development of practical skills needed by the modern choral

conductor.

CHORALE. A Lutheran congregational vernacular hymn. The term

is also sometimes used to designate a choir.

CHURCH MODES • 81

CHORALE CANTATA. See CANTATA.

CHORALE MASS. A mass setting that uses chorales as cantus

firmi.

CHORUS AMERICA. An American organization, founded in 1977 as

the Association of Professional Vocal Ensembles, renamed in 1993.

Its purpose is to provide choral organizations, their conductors, and

their administrators with the professional support (information, re-

search, leadership development, training, and advocacy) needed for

the growth and financial viability of the choral art. See also CHO-

RAL ORGANIZATIONS.

CHORUS MASTER. A choral director, particularly the director of a

chorus affiliated with an orchestra. See also CHOIRMASTER.

CHRISTIANSEN, FREDERICK MELIUS (1 APRIL 1871–1 JUNE

1955). American choral conductor, organist, and violinist; founding

director of the St. Olaf Choir. Born in Norway, he moved to the

United States in 1888. After studies at Augsburg College and the

Northwestern Conservatory of Music in Minneapolis, he enrolled at

the music conservatory in Leipzig, where he was strongly influenced

by Gustav Schreck, Kantor of the Thomaskirche. Upon his return to

the United States, he became increasingly active as a choral conduc-

tor. In 1903 he was hired to teach music and direct the band at St.

Olaf College in Northfield, Minnesota. He also served as organist and

choirmaster at St. John’s Lutheran Church in Northfield. Under his

leadership the church choir was reorganized to include students and

faculty from the college, and in 1912 it was renamed the St. Olaf Lu-

theran Choir. Concentrating on refined unaccompanied performance

of sacred choral literature, Christiansen brought the choir to national

and international attention. Of his many choral compositions and

arrangements, the best-known is probably “Beautiful Savior,” an ar-

rangement of the hymn, “Fairest Lord Jesus” (Crusader’s Hymn).

CHURCH MODES. The scalar and melodic categories of chant es-

tablished in the Medieval era. There were traditionally eight church

modes, identified by pitch range (ambitus) and cadence pitch (fina-

lis): Dorian (ambitus D–D, finalis D), Hypodorian (A–A, finalis D),

Phrygian (E–E, finalis E), Hypophrygian (B–B, finalis E), Lydian

(F–F, finalis F), Hypolydian (C–C, finalis F), Mixolydian (G–G,