The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 1: Ancient Japan
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OPTIMISM 547
Japan's imperial line would end after the one hundredth reign, arguing
that one hundred meant an indefinitely large number.
I0
5 Japanese
historical works were never again shaped by the pessimism of belief
of
kalpic decline and continued to reflect optimism about the future of
the human condition.
The significance of the three characteristics of historical thought dis-
cussed in this chapter cannot be fully understood without considering
the effect each had on the other two. A general overview of the interac-
tion suggests that vitalism (rooted in beliefs about kami power) is the
most basic of
the
three. But that quality was not taken up first because
it was genealogical concerns (linealism) that had motivated officials to
compile chronicles and that gave these chronicles their essential form
and content. Nevertheless, belief in the divinity and continuity of the
imperial line (and of the descent lines of other important clans) was
firmly grounded in an ancient and lasting belief in the mysterious,
creative power of kami. This is made clear in the first mythological
sections of Japan's earliest extant chronicles in which myths were
obviously selected and subjected to revision in order to sanctify further
the origin and continuity of the imperial line. Optimism, the third
characteristic, was also rooted in beliefs about the life-giving and life-
enriching native kami. Jien, a high-ranking and influential Buddhist
priest, even stated that a promising political plan for the immediate
future had been created by the most powerful and prestigious life-
giving ancestral kami of Japan. Thus the three characteristics had a
deeper influence on the historical consciousness because they re-
inforced one another.
Admittedly, the three characteristics (and others not considered
here) can be found in other cultural traditions. But I submit that all
three, separately and in combination, were especially strong and persis-
tent in the early evolution of Japanese historical consciousness: Offi-
cial chronicles were motivated and molded by lineal concerns; belief in
kami origins, kami creativity, and kami worship provided a vitalistic
tone to writings about the past; and preoccupation with the growth
dimension of life even made Jien - a thirteenth-century Buddhist writ-
ing a history at a time of crisis - quite sure that the immediate future
would be better than the present. The persistence and power of these
characteristics in a period when Japanese intellectuals were deeply
105 Jinno shotoki NKBT 87.66, translated by Paul H. Varley, A
Chronicle
of Gods and Sovereigns:
Jinno Shotoki of Kilabaiake Chikafusa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980), p. 84.
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
548 EVOLUTION OF HISTORICAL CONSCIOUSNESS
immersed in Chinese learning indicate that they had come from the
very taproots of Japanese culture. Instead of being influenced by a
Chinese-style absorption in the rise and fall of dynasties, Japanese
aristocrats were preoccupied with a single line of sovereigns created by
the Sun Goddess. Instead of assuming that the course of human affairs
was shaped by the moral and immoral actions of humans as pro-
pounded in the Confucian Classics, ancient chronicles made vitalistic
strength (ikioi) a major historical determinant. And instead of accept-
ing Buddhist doctrines of inevitable decline, poets and chroniclers
were buoyed by a widespread assumption that the future would be
better than the present.
Evidence for this study has been taken almost exclusively from
materials written by members of Japan's ruling elite, men and women
who did not concern themselves with the thoughts and beliefs of
commoners. We therefore have no direct way of knowing whether
linealism, vitalism, and optimism had any relevance to what a villager
thought or felt about the passage of time. Probably he or she was not
even aware of what was being written and read at the imperial court
and undoubtedly could have cared less about aristocratic affirmations
of genealogical descent, worship of ancestral kami, or talk about re-
birth in some Buddhist heaven. Linealism (arising from the preoccupa-
tions of rulers) probably had not yet worked its way down into the
consciousness of people at the base of
society.
But clearly, vitalism and
optimism (arising from deep and popular belief in the power of the
kami) had worked their way up into the consciousness of those aristo-
crats who wrote poems and stories and who compiled anthologies,
legal codes, gazetteers, and chronicles.
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