The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 12: Republican China, 1912-1949, Part 1
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THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY
OF CHINA
General
Editors
DENIS TWITCHETT and JOHN K. FAIRBANK
Volume 12
Republican China 1912—1949, Part 1
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
THE CAMBRIDGE
HISTORY
OF
CHINA
Volume 12
Republican China 1912-1949, Part 1
edited by
JOHN
K,
FAIRBANK
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
CAMBRIDGE
NEW YORK PORT CHESTER
MELBOURNE SYDNEY
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo
Cambridge University Press
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title:www.cambridge.org/9780521235419
© Cambridge University Press 1983
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of
any
part may take place withour
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 1983
6th printing 2005
Printed in the United States of America.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN-13 978-0-521-23541-9 hardback
ISBN-10 0-521-23541-3 hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for
the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or
third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such
Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
GENERAL EDITORS' PREFACE
As the modern world grows more interconnected, historical under-
standing of it becomes ever more necessary and the historian's task ever
more complex. Fact and theory affect each other even as sources pro-
liferate and knowledge increases. Merely to summarize what is known
becomes an awesome task, yet a factual basis of knowledge is increasingly
essential for historical thinking.
Since the beginning of the century, the Cambridge histories have set
a pattern in the English-reading world for multi-volume series containing
chapters written by specialists under the guidance of volume editors. The
Cambridge Modern
History, planned by Lord Acton, appeared in sixteen
volumes between 1902 and 1912. It was followed by
The Cambridge
Ancient
History, The Cambridge Medieval History, The Cambridge History of English
Literature,
and Cambridge Histories of
India,
of Poland, and of the British
Empire. The original
Modern History
has now been replaced by The New
Cambridge Modern History in twelve volumes, and The
Cambridge
Economic
History of
Europe
is now being completed. Other Cambridge Histories
recently undertaken include a history of Islam, of Arabic literature, of the
Bible treated as a central document of and influence on Western civiliza-
tion, and of Iran and China.
In the case of China, Western historians face a special problem. The
history of Chinese civilization is more extensive and complex than that
of any single Western nation, and only slightly less ramified than the
history of European civilization as a whole. The Chinese historical record
is immensely detailed and extensive, and Chinese historical scholarship has
been highly developed and sophisticated for many centuries. Yet until
recent decades the study of China in the West, despite the important
pioneer work of European sinologists, had hardly progressed beyond the
translation of some few classical historical texts, and the outline history
of the major dynasties and their institutions.
Recently Western scholars have drawn more fully upon the rich tradi-
tions of historical scholarship in China and also in Japan, and greatly
advanced both our detailed knowledge of past events and institutions,
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
VI GENERAL EDITORS PREFACE
and also
our
critical understanding
of
traditional historiography.
In
addition,
the
present generation
of
Western historians
of
China
can
also
draw upon
the new
outlooks
and
techniques
of
modern Western
his-
torical scholarship,
and
upon recent developments
in the
social sciences,
while continuing
to
build upon
the
solid foundations
of
rapidly
pro-
gressing European, Japanese
and
Chinese sinological studies. Recent
historical events,
too,
have given prominence
to new
problems, while
throwing into question many older conceptions. Under these multiple
impacts
the
Western revolution
in
Chinese studies
is
steadily gathering
momentum.
When
The Cambridge History
of
China
was
first planned
in
1966,
the aim
was
to
provide
a
substantial account
of the
history
of
China
as a
bench
mark
for the
Western history-reading public:
an
account
of the
current
state
of
knowledge
in six
volumes. Since then
the
out-pouring
of
current
research,
the
application
of
new methods,
and the
extension
of
scholarship
into
new
fields, have further stimulated Chinese historical studies. This
growth
is
indicated
by
the fact that
the
History has
now
become
a
planned
sixteen volumes,
but
will still leave
out
such topics
as the
history
of art
and
of
literature, many aspects
of
economics
and
technology,
and all the
riches
of
local history.
The striking advances
in our
knowledge
of
China's past over
the
last
decade will continue
and
accelerate. Western historians
of
this great
and
complex subject
are
justified
in
their efforts
by the
needs
of
their
own
peoples
for
greater
and
deeper understanding
of
China. Chinese history
belongs
to the
world,
not
only
as a
right
and
necessity,
but
also
as a
subject
of
compelling interest.
JOHN
K.
FAIRBANK
DENIS TWITCHETT
March
1982
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
CONTENTS
General
editors'
preface
P*g
e
v
List
of
maps
List
of
tables
Preface
to
volume
12
1 Introduction: Maritime
and
continental
in
China's history
by JOHN
K.
FAIRBANK,
Professor
of History, Hmeritus, Harvard
University
The problem
of
foreign influence
1
Maritime China
as a
minor tradition
9
The treaty-port mixture
20
2 Economic trends, 1912-49
by ALBERT FEUERWERKER, Professor
of
History, University
of
Michigan,
Ann Arbor
Introduction:
an
overview
28
Population
34
National income
37
Industry
41
Agriculture
63
Transport
91
Government
and the
economy
99
Foreign trade
and
investment
116
3
The
foreign presence
in
China
by ALBERT FEUERWERKER
The foreign network
128
Diplomats
154
Missionaries
165
Chinese government agencies
177
Economic interests
192
Vll
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
Vlll CONTENTS
4 Politics in the aftermath of revolution: the era of Yuan Shih-k'ai,
1912-16
by ERNEST P. YOUNG, Professor of History, University of
Michigan,
Ann
Arbor
The ambiguous legacy of the revolution 209
The structure of the new order 213
Political parties and constitutional government 217
Yuan Shih-k'ai on the issues 225
The Second Revolution 228
The Dictatorship 237
Yuan's monarchical movement 246
5 A constitutional republic: the Peking government, 1916-28
by ANDREW J. NATHAN,
Professor
of Political
Science,
Columbia University
Social and intellectual roots of constitutionalism 259
The Peking government 263
The political role of the modern banks 268
Factionalism and personal connections 271
Election of the Anfu parliament, 1918 274
Decline of the constitutionalist ideal, 1922-28 278
6 The warlord era: politics and militarism under the Peking government,
1916-28
by JAMES E. SHERIDAN,
Professor
of History, Northwestern University
The view from the provinces: warlords and warlordism 284
The view from Peking: militarism and instability 307
Warlordism and Chinese society 317
7 Intellectual change: from the Reform movement to the May Fourth
movement, 1895-19 20
by CHARLOTTE FURTH, Professor of History, California State
University
at
Long
Beach
Evolutionism in reform thought 322
National Essence and the future of Confucianism: the emergence of
Neo-traditional alternatives 350
Social Utopia and the background of the May Fourth movement
374
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
CONTENTS
IX
8 Themes in intellectual history: May Fourth and after
by BENJAMIN
I.
SCHWARTZ,
Professor
of History and
Government,
Harvard
University
The May Fourth incident 406
Progress and nationalism 409
Revolution 415
The 1911 Revolution and the 'New Culture' 419
May Fourth and its consequences 427
Introduction of Marxism-Leninism 430
Problems and '-isms' 433
The theme of popular culture 435
'Neo-traditionalism' - finding truth in the heritage 437
The debate on science and human life 439
The ascendancy of Marxism 444
9 Literary trends I: the quest for modernity, 1895-1927
by
LEO
OU-FAN
LEE,
Professor
of
Chinese
Literature,
the
University
of
Chicago
Late Ch'ing literature, 1895-1911 452
Butterfly fiction and the transition to May Fourth (1911-17) 461
The May Fourth era, 1917-27 464
10 The Chinese Communist Movement to 1927
by JEROME CH'EN, Professor of History, York University, Toronto
Conversion to the doctrine 505
Foundation of the party 514
Tension in the first united front 518
11 The Nationalist Revolution: from Canton to Nanking, 1923-28
by C. MARTIN WILBUR, Professor of History, Emeritus,
Columbia
University
Creating a revolutionary movement 527
Competition and dissension within
5 5 3
The drive to unify China - first phase 575
Conflict over revolutionary goals 603
Mounting problems for the Wuhan regime 639
The communists turn to rebellion 673
The final drive - Peking captured and Nanking the new capital
697
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
12 The Chinese bourgeoisie, 1911-37
by MARIE-CLAIRE BERGERE,
Professeur
a I'lnstitut National
des
Langues
et Civilisations
Orientates,
Universite
de Paris III
The birth of a Chinese bourgeoisie 722
1911:
the invisible bourgeois revolution 729
The golden age of Chinese capitalism, 1917-23 745
The political failure of the bourgeoisie 762
From economic crisis to political abdication, 1923-27 787
The return of bureaucracy and decline of the bourgeoisie, 1927-37
809
Bibliographical
essays
827
Bibliography 859
Glossary-Index 927
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008