Tarek Ahmed. Reservoir engineering handbook

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Splitting and lumping schemes of the

plus-fraction 1137.................................................

Splitting schemes 1138.........................................

Lumping schemes 1148........................................

Problems 1155.....................................................

References 1159..................................................

APPENDIX 1165..................................................

INDEX 1177.........................................................

Second Edition

Reservoir Eng FOB 2001-10-29 16:18 Page i

Reservoir Eng FOB 2001-10-29 16:18 Page ii

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Second Edition

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ahmed, Tared H., 1946-

Reservoir engineering handbook / Tarek Ahmed.

p.cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-88415-770-9 (alk. paper)

1. Oil reservoir engineering. 2. Oil fields. 3. Gas reservoirs. I. Title.

TN871 .A337 2000

622’.3382--dc21

99-005377

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Printed in the United States

Reservoir Eng FOB 2001-10-29 16:18 Page iv

To my gorgeous wife Shanna,

And my beautiful children

Jennifer

Justin

Brittany

Carsen

Reservoir Eng FOB 2001-10-29 16:18 Page v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii.............................

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION xiv.....

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION xv..........

1 FUNDAMENTALS OF RESERVOIR

FLUID BEHAVIOR 1......................................

Classification of reservoirs and reservoir

fluids 1............................................................

Pressure-temperature diagram 2....................

Oil reservoirs 4................................................

Gas reservoirs 10.............................................

Undefined petroleum fractions 24.....................

Problems 27.....................................................

References 28..................................................

2 RESERVOIR-FLUID PROPERTIES 29........

Properties of natural gases 29.........................

Behavior of ideal gases 30...............................

Behavior of real gases 36.................................

Effect of nonhydrocarbon components of

the Z-factor 44..................................................

Nonhydrocarbon adjustment methods 45.........

The Wichert-Aziz correction method 45............

Correction for high-molecular weight

gases 49...........................................................

Direct calculation of compressibility

factors 54..........................................................

Compressibility of natural gases 59.................

Gas formation volume factor 65.......................

Gas viscosity 67...............................................

Methods of calculating the viscosity of

natural gases 68...............................................

Properties of crude oil systems 74...................

Crude oil gravity 75...........................................

Specific gravity of the solution gas 76..............

Gas solubility 77...............................................

Bubble-point pressure 86..................................

Oil formation volume factor 92..........................

Isothermal compressibility coefficient of

crude oil 98.......................................................

Oil formation volume factor for

undersaturated oils 103......................................

Crude oil density 106..........................................

Crude oil viscosity 108........................................

Methods of calculating viscosity of the

dead oil 109........................................................

Methods of calculating the saturated oil

viscosity 111.......................................................

Methods of calculating the viscosity of

the undersaturated oil 112..................................

Surface/interfacial tension 115...........................

Properties of reservoir water 118.......................

Water formation volume factor 118.....................

Water viscosity 119.............................................

Gas solubility in water 119..................................

Water isothermal compressibility 120.................

Problems 120.....................................................

References 126..................................................

3 LABORATORY ANALYSIS OF

RESERVOIR FLUIDS 130.................................

Composition of the resevoir fluid 131.................

Constant-composition expansion tests 131........

Differential liberation (vaporization) test 143......

Separator tests 146............................................

Adjustment of differential liberation data

to separator conditions 151................................

Extrapolation of resevoir fluid data 158..............

Correcting constant-composition

expansion data 158............................................

Correcting differential liberation data 160...........

Correcting oil viscosity data 161.........................

Correcting the separator tests data 163.............

Laboratory analysis of gas condensate

systems 165.......................................................

Recombination of separator samples 165..........

Constant-composition test 168...........................

Constant-volume depletion (CVD) test 170........

Problems 178.....................................................

References 182..................................................

4 FUNDAMENTALS OF ROCK

PROPERTIES 183.............................................

Porosity 184.......................................................

Absolute porosity 184.........................................

Effective porosity 185.........................................

Saturation 189....................................................

Average saturation 191.......................................

Wettability 193....................................................

Surface and interfacial tension 194....................

Capillary pressure 197.......................................

Capillary pressure of reservoir rocks 200...........

Capillary hysteresis 203......................................

Initial saturation distribution in a reservoir 206...

Leverett J-function 218.......................................

Converting laboratory capillary pressure

data 221..............................................................

Permeability 221.................................................

The Klinkenberg effect 228.................................

Averaging absolute permeabilities 235...............

Weighted-average

permeability 236..............................

Harmonic-average

permeability 239..............................

Geometric-average

permeability 243..............................

Absolute permeability correlations 244...............

Rock compressibility 248....................................

Net pay thickness 254........................................

Resevoir heterogeneity 255...............................

Vertical Heterogeneity 256.................................

Areal heterogeneity 268.....................................

Problems 273.....................................................

References 278..................................................

5 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

CONCEPTS 280................................................

Two-phase relative permeability 281..................

Drainage process 285.........................................

Imbibition process 286........................................

Two-phase relatie permeability

correlations 286..................................................

1 Wyllie and Gardner correlation 288.................

2 Torcaso and Wyllie correlation 289.................

3 Pirson’s correlation 289...................................