Sussex R., Cubberley P. The Slavic Languages

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(75) ‘north-east’ ‘north-eastern’

B/C/S

severoı

stok

severoı

stoc

-(a)n-

Blg

severoiz¨tok

severoiz¨toc

ˇ-

(e)n-

Rus

severo-vos¨tok

severo-vos¨toc

-n-yj

Ukr piv’nic

nyj¨ sxid piv

nic

no-¨sxid-n-yj

Slk ¨severo

chod ¨severo

chod-n-y

Pol po

ł¨nocny¨ wscho

d, po

noco-¨ wscho

dpo

nocno¨wschod-n-i

Non-derived adjectives may also be compounded, normally with a link vowel

(dash [–] ¼ orthographic hyphen):

(76) ‘dark-red’

B/C/S

mn-o-cr%ven Blg

ta˘mn-o-c

er¨ven

Rus

emn-o–¨krasnyj Ukr

temn-o–c

er¨vonyj

Pol

ciemn-o-czer¨wony Cz ¨tmav-o-

erveny

8.4.4 Gradation of adjectives

The comparative and superlative forms occur with qualitative adjectives, and with

adverbs derived from them. There are four types of gradation formation: prefixa-

tion; analytic forms; synthetic forms (prefixation and suffixation); and suppletion.

8.4.4.1 Prefixation

Bulgarian and Macedonian use simple prefixes (always stressed, in addition to the

stress on the adjective, hyphenated in Bulgarian, not in Macedonian):

(77) Positive Comparative Superlative

a. ‘good’

Blg doba

rpo

–doba

rna

j–doba

Mac a

ren po

-a

ren na

j-a

ren

b. ‘quick’

Blg ba

rz po

–ba

rz na

j–ba

Mac brz po

-br

zna

j-br

Most other languages use naj-/nej- for the superlative, prefixed to the (suffixed)

comparative:

(78) ‘new’

Positive Comparative Superlative

B/C/S no`` v- (



i) no

v-ijı¯ na

j-nov-ijı¯

Bel no

v-y nav-e

s-y naj-nav-e

s-y

Slk

nov-y

nov-

s-ı

naj-nov-

s-ı

8.4 Word formation and adjectives 459

In Russian nai- is restricted to either high or journalistic style, or it has the meaning

of the absolute superlative:

(79) Rus blı

z-k-ij ‘near’ nai-blizˇ-a

s-ij ‘nearest’ (high)

intere

sn-yj ‘interesting’ nai-intere

sn-ej

s-ij ‘most interesting’

8.4.4.2 Analytic forms

Many languages have both analytic and synthetic gradation: all of East Slavic, all

West Slavic except Czech, and Slovenian. B/C/S and Czech have only synthetic

forms, Bulgarian and Macedonian only prefixation (77).

In analytic gradation a comparative/superlative (indeclinable) adverb is used

with the positive adjective or adverb, like English ‘more/most’. In the comparative

we have: Sln bo

lj, Bel bol

s, Ukr bı

s(e), Rus bo

lee, USorb bo

le, LSorb we

cej,

Slk viac/v

ˇˇ

smi, Pol bardziej, plus the positive grade of the adjective. In the superla-

tive the corresponding superlative adverb is formed by adding the prefix naj- to

these forms, in all but Russian:

(80) ‘new’

Positive Comparative Superlative

Ukr no

v-yj bı

s(e) no

v-yj najbı

s(e) no

v-yj

Pol now-y bardziej now-y najbardziej now-y

Slk nov-y

viac/v

ˇˇ

smi nov-y

najviac/najv

ˇˇ

smi nov-y

(U)Sorb now-y bo

le now-y najbo

le now-y

Russian (and Belarusian optionally) uses the declinable adjective sa

m-yj, Bel sa

m-y

with the positive: Rus sa

m-yj no

v-yj ‘the newest’. Where suffixed (synthetic) com-

parative/superlative adjectival forms exist (e.g. Rus lu

ˇˇ

s-ij ‘better’ – see below),

m-yj may (optionally) be used to specify the superlative: sa

m-yj lu

ˇˇ

s-ij.

8.4.4.3 Synthetic forms

In synthetic gradation we find both prefixation and suffixation. A suffix, parallel to

English -er/-est, is added to the adjective stem. This is the most common type of

gradation in Slavic. The analytic formation may be preferred for derived words

(like those in -sk-) and borrowed words. In languages with both analytic and

synthetic forms, the analytic form tends to occur as a modifier in noun phrases,

and either the synthetic or the analytic form may appear in predicates, more often

the former:

(81) Rus bo

lee de

ev-aja ma

sı

n-a ‘a cheaper car’

Rus e

t-a ma

sı

n-a de

vl-e/bo

lee de

ev-aja ‘this car is cheaper’

460 8. Word formation

The comparative is formed by adding a suffix to the positive adjective’s stem. The

choice between them is sometimes purely lexical (unpredictable from the form of

the word), and is sometimes dependent on phonological factors like the number or

nature of consonants at the end of the root. In Proto-Slavic the comparative/

superlative suffix was -e

s-, and this is still the most common:

(82) Positive Comparative

‘clean’

Sln c

st c

iste

Pol czyst- czys

c-iejsz-y

Slk c

ist-y

ist-ej

s-ı

‘clever’

Bel xı

tr-y xitr-e

s-y

Cz chytr-y

chytr-ej

s-ı

Sorb mudr-y mudr-i

s-i

However, in Proto-Slavic, this suffix was missing in the nominative singular mascu-

line and neuter, and the suffixless form was that used later for the comparative

adverb or adjective inflexion -(e)je. The -(ej)

s- suffix is absent from B/C/S, which

has comparative - (i)jı¯ , superlative naj-+-(i)jı¯ :

(83) B/C/S sta`` r-

‘old’ sta

r-ijı¯ ‘older’

naj-sta

r-ijı¯ ‘oldest’

B/C/S tı``h-

‘quiet’ tı``

sı¯ (h >

s ¼ mutation) ‘quieter’

In Russian the -(ej)

s- suffix has the meaning of the superlative (above), except in a

few irregular cases, usually suppletives (below).

Other forms of the suffix used for this purpose are:

(84a) -

s-, with prepalatalization, and the loss of ‘vowel+k’ in roots:

Positive Comparative

Sln sla

‘weak’ sla

s-i

Ukr star-y

j ‘old’ sta

s-yj

Slk nov-y

‘new’ nov-

s-ı

bliz-k-y

‘near’ bliz-

s-ı

(84b) -i

s-, often after stems in clusters:

Ukr molod-y

j ‘young’ molod-ı

s-yj

Sorb spe

ˇˇ

sn-y ‘quick’ spe

ˇˇ

sn-i

s-i

(84c) -c

ˇ-

, with the adjectives retaining the -k- (i.e. c

is mutated k):

Ukr vuz

-k-y

jvu

zˇ-c

-yj

8.4 Word formation and adjectives 461

Rus l

eg-k-ij ‘light’ le

g-c

ˇ-e

Cz ten-k-y

‘thin’ ten-c

-ı

In Russian the forms in -e and -ee are indeclinable comparatives, and occur only in

predicates. The former causes mutation:

(85) Positive Comparative

Rus nı

z-k-ij ‘low’ nı

zˇ-e

Rus krası

v-yj ‘beautiful’ krası

v-ee

8.4.4.4 Suppletion

A few common adjectives, as in English, show different roots in the comparative

and superlative, as distinct from the positive degree:

(86) ‘bad’

Positive Comparative Superlative

Ukr zl-yj hı

s-yj naj-hı

s-yj

Rus plox-o

jxu

s-ij/xu

zˇ-e xu

s-ij

spatn-y

hor-

s-ı

nej-hor-

s-ı

Pol zł-y gor-sz-y naj-gor-sz-y

8.5 Word formation and adverbs

Adverbs show only restricted prefixation, especially involving negatives and inde-

finites (cf. 8.6.2). Most other types of prefixed adverbs involve suffixation as well,

especially with the remains of prepositions and cases:

(87) po-: Rus ru

ssk-ij [Adj] ‘Russian’

po–ru

ssk-i

[Adv] ‘in Russian, in a Russian manner’

e.g. govorı

po–ru

sski ‘to speak (in) Russian’

na-: Slk na-pred ‘forwards’ (former Acc in -

)

v-: Slk v-predu ‘in front’ (former Loc in -u)

z-: Slk z-vrchu ‘from above’ (former Gen in -u)

Outside prefixation, adverbs are formed principally from nouns, prepositional phrases

and qualitative adjectives. Only the last of these three types is still productive. Adverbs

formed from nouns, or from Adjective þ Noun phrases, show fossilized case-forms:

(88) B/C/S z

m- i ‘in winter’

winter- [LocSg]

go`` r- e ‘up, higher’

mountain- [ (Former)LocSg]

462 8. Word formation

Bel bja

h- om ‘at a run’

run- [InstSg]

Rus s-ego

- dnj-a ‘today’

this (arch.) [GenSg] – day [GenSg]

Cz celk- em ‘in general, quite’

whole- [InstrSg]

But most derived adverbs are manner adverbs, and are formed from adjectives by

replacing the adjectival inflexion, usually with -o or -e. Hard adjective stems are

followed by -o (89a); soft and formerly soft stems, and West Slavic non-velars,

generally take -e, with prepalatalization where appropriate (89b). Some instances

of -e continue Proto-Slavic -e

, and so may appear on a hard stem (89c). Adjectives

in -sk- take -i (or -y) (89d):

(89) DERIVATION OF ADVERBS FROM ADJECTIVES

(89a) -o: ‘quiet’ tix-

‘quietly’: B/C/S tı``h-o, Rus, Blg tı

x-o, Ukr ty

x-o,

Cz, Slk tich-o, Pol cich-o

(89b) -e: ‘extreme’ kraj-n

‘extremely’: Rus, Bel kra

jn-e (cf. from -e

:Czkrajn-e

)

(89c) -e ( < e

): ‘good’ dobr-

‘well’: Blg dobr-e

, Ukr do

br-e, Pol dobrz-e,Czdobr

-e

(cf. B/C/S do

bro, Sln do

bro, Mac dobr-o )

(89d) -i/-y: Blg vra

zˇ-esk-i [Adj and Adv] ‘enemy, inimical, inimically’

B/C/S lju%d-sk



i- ‘human’, lju%d-sk-i ‘humanly’

Rus dru

zˇ-esk-ij ‘friendly’, dru

zˇ-esk-i ‘in friendly manner’

Cz ru-(s)sky

‘Russian’, rus-(s)ky ‘in Russian’

e.g. mluvit rusky ‘to speak Russian’

Adverbs derived from qualitative adjectives may show the same diminutive suffixes

as the adjectives: Pol cich-y ‘quiet’, cich-o ‘quietly’, cich-uten

k-o [Dim].

A small number of adverbs derive from gerunds: Rus mo

-a ‘silently’ ( <molc

-a

‘to be silent’), and a few from numerals: Rus trı

-zˇdy ‘thrice’ ( <tri ‘3’). These

formations are not productive.

8.5.1 Gradation of adverbs

Graded adverbs belong mainly to the category of adverbs of manner. They are

formed from the corresponding adjectives by the four methods described for

8.5 Word formation and adverbs 463

adjectives in 8.4.1: prefixation, analytic forms, synthetic forms and suppletion. The

patterns and selection of forms are close to those of adjectives.

Prefixation operates as for adjectives, and is standard in Bulgarian and

Macedonian: Blg glu

pavo ‘stupidly’, po

–glu

pavo ‘more stupidly’, na

j–glu

pavo

‘most stupidly’. Prefixation also forms superlatives from synthetic comparatives –

see below.

As compared to the choice of analytic vs synthetic formation in the adjectives

(above), some languages have a lesser choice in the adverb: Slovak, Sorbian and

Slovenian form the adverb only synthetically (in addition to Czech and B/C/S).

The analytic forms use the appropriate form of ‘more, most’ with the positive

degree of the adverb: Rus bo

lee krası

vo ‘more beautifully’. In this case Russian too

uses the prefix naj- (in the form nai-) to make the superlative: naibo

lee krası

vo. The

analytic forms are alternatives to the synthetic forms, where they exist.

In synthetic forms of the degrees of comparison a suffix is added to the stem, and

may prepalatalize or mutate the stem at the same time. The suffix is the same as for

the adjectives, namely a reflex of either PSl -(e

)je (the NomSgNeut of the com-

parative adjective) (90a) or -(e

s-e (from other forms) (90b). The superlative is

formed by prefixing naj- to the comparative form:

(90a) Positive Comparative Superlative

‘wisely’

B/C/S mu

dr-o mu

dr-ije na

j-mudr-ije

‘near’

Bel blı

zk-a blizˇ-e

j naj-blizˇ-e

Sorb blis-k-o blizˇ-e naj-blizˇ-e

‘weakly’

USorb słab-je słab-je naj-słab-je

LSorb s

ab-je słab-jej nej-słab-jej

‘silently’

Cz tich-o ti

s-e nej-ti

s-e

(90b)

‘beautifully’

Slk pekn-e pekn-ej

s-ie naj-pekn-ej

s-ie

‘strongly’

USorb syln-o syln-i

s-o naj-syln-i

s-o

Suppletion occurs in a few cases of mostly high-frequency items, where the corres-

ponding adjective also shows suppletion between the positive degree, on the one

hand, and the comparative and superlative, on the other, e.g. Ukr baha

to ‘much’,

bı

s(e) ‘more’ (see above).

464 8. Word formation

8.6 Word formation and other parts of speech

Word formation in other parts of speech is not productive, with the partial excep-

tion of compound prepositions. Some of these are formed from the adjunction of

two prepositions, which may be hyphenated. They are semantically compositional:

(91) ‘from’ ‘under’ ‘(out) from under’

Blg iz pod is-pod

Rus iz pod iz–pod

Others are lexicalized from prepositional phrases, like Blg v rezulta

t ‘as a result of’.

We discuss below two areas where word-formation processes are active, if not

productive, in the modern languages: numerals (8.6.1); and pronouns, determiners

and pro-adverbs (8.6.2).

8.6.1 Numerals

Five topics in Slavic numeral systems belong with word formation: cardinals,

ordinals, collectives, distributives and de-numeral adverbs.

8.6.1.1 Cardinal numerals

The formation of non-simplex cardinal numerals is sometimes handled within

lexicology. But it is also a conventionalized word-formation process in the terms

used here, since whole words are combined into uninterruptible wholes in com-

pound numbers, since numbers inflect, and since affixes, like the ordinal suffix, are

added either to the whole number, or to various component parts of the number.

The general pattern of cardinal-number composition follows the familiar Indo-

European decimal orientation (avoiding the twenties-counting (‘‘vigesimal’’) sys-

tem of languages like Danish and French). Numbers from 11 to 19 contain a ‘‘teen’’

element derived from the number 10, while the ‘‘-ty’’ numbers like 20, 30 ...contain

a different reflex of ‘‘ten’’ (see 5.5.4 for Proto-Slavic forms and further details of the

modern ones):

(92) ‘three’ ‘ten’ ‘thirteen’ ‘thirty’ ‘thirty-three’

Blg tri dese

t tri-na-de

set tri-de

set tride

set i trı

Rus tri de

sjat

tri-na

-dcat

trı

-dcat

trı

dcat

trı

Pol trzy dziesie˛ c

trzy-na-s

cie trzy-dzies

ci trzydzies

ci trzy

Some of the ‘‘-ty’’ numbers are inflexionally impoverished, with strong case syn-

cretism (5.5.4). Some are lexically irregular, like East Slavic so

rok (Rus, Ukr)/so

rak

(Bel) ‘40’ and devjano

sto (Rus, Ukr)/dzevjano

sta (Bel) ‘90’.

8.6 Word formation and other parts of speech 465

Compound numbers (with more than one lexeme) above ‘21’ are formed by

adjunction, with the largest numbers to the left and the digits to the right.

(Bulgarian and Macedonian insert i ‘and’ before the last digit: ‘‘twenty and

one’’.) In Sorbian the hundreds–tens–digits pattern is replaced by a form like

the archaic English ‘‘two-and-twenty’’, resulting from constant contact with the

same pattern in German. Czech, Slovak and Slovenian have both this pattern as

well as the more regular ‘‘twenty-two’’ order, which is archaic and rare in

Slovenian, but may be preferred in Czech and Slovak, where only the final ‘‘ten’’

need then be declined:

(93) ‘thirty-three’ ‘three-and-thirty’

Sln (tr

-deset tr

) tr

-in-tr

deset [Fem, Neut]

Sorb – tr

i-a-tr

icec

i [Masc Impers, Fem, Neut]

Cz tr

i-cet tr

itr

i-a-tr

icet

Slk tri-dsat’ tri tri-a-tridsat’

(Sln in, Sorb, Cz, Slk a ‘and’). The words for ‘thousand’ and ‘million’ behave like

lexical nouns.

There is a current instability in the declension of cardinal numbers, especially

compound numbers. While normative grammars may specify that each component

of a number should be inflected, there is a strong tendency in Slavic, and especially

in the spoken languages, to make complex numbers indeclinable. It is already

standard in B/C/S to decline only the numbers 1–4, 100, 1,000 and 1,000,000. As

an alternative, speakers will avoid constructions where numbers are in any case

other than the nominative or accusative; or they will simply place the number

phrase in apposition, which – at least subjectively – partly isolates it from the case-

agreement requirements. While this does not affect the word-formation com-

position of the number system, it does have an important effect on the word-class

status of compound nouns and their function in morpho-syntax (see also 5.5.4.1

and 6.1.2.3).

8.6.1.2 Ordinal numerals

Ordinal numerals – except for ‘1’ and ‘2’ (5.5.4.2) – are derived from the cardinals

by the addition of adjectival suffixes. Depending on the number and on the

language, there is some variation with compound numbers as to whether it is

only the last element which receives the adjectival suffix and inflexion, as with the

English -th, or the last element as well as other elements. East and South Slavic

follow the former pattern, in West Slavic Czech suffixes and declines all elements,

while Slovak and Polish suffix and decline only the last two, and Sorbian only the

last element:

466 8. Word formation

(94) ‘three hundred and thirty-third’ [MascNomSg] Ordinal suffix on:

SouthSl: Blg: trı

-sta trı

-deset i tre

-t-i last

B/C/S: trı``-sta trı

-deset (i) tre``c

ı¯ last

Sln: trı

-sto trı

-in-trı

-deset tre

-tj-i last

EastSl: Rus: trı

-sta trı

-dcat

tre

-t-ij last

WestSl: Cz: tr

-st-y

i-ca

t-y

e-t-ı

all

Pol: trzy-sta trzy-dziest-y trze-c-i last two

Sorb: tr

i sta tr

i-cec

-i tr

e-c

-i last

8.6.1.3 Collective numerals

A not too systematic, but typologically noteworthy, area of Slavic involves collec-

tive numerals expressing a group of entities specified by number, like English pair

(5.5.4.3), and other suffixed numeral forms expressing groups and approximations.

B/C/S, Slovenian, and all of East and West Slavic, share a collective numeral

suffix in -oj(e) (for 2–3), -er(o)/-or(o) (for 4+). This form is used not only for

collective groups, but also to quantify pluralia tantum nouns:

(95) B/C/S dvo`` j-e c

rap-e ‘two pairs of stockings’

Sln deset-e

r-o ljud-ı

‘(a group of) ten people’

Rus ı

xby

-l-o dvo

-e

they-Gen be-PastNeutSg two-CollNom

‘there were two of them’

Slk p

at-or-o det-ı

‘five children’

Bulgarian and Macedonian have -(

i)n-a and -m-a to express groups and approx-

imate number: Blg petnadeset-ı

n-a ‘about fifteen, a group of about fifteen’. These

languages also use a -(t)in- suffix for 400–900: ‘400’: Blg c

tiri-sto-tin, Mac c

etiri-

sto

-tini (cf. B/C/S c

ˇe

tiri-st



o or c

ˇe

tiri sto`` -tine, Rus c

ˇety

re-sta). The concept of

‘‘approximate number’’ has various means of expression, not only by prepositions

like ‘about’, but also by Noun–Numeral order in Russian: pja

karanda

j ‘five

pencils’, karanda

j pja

‘about five pencils’ and by particles like Slovak zo: zo

dvadsat’ ‘about 20’.

Lexicalization from collectives can result in new substantives: B/C/S tro

j-ic-a,

Rus tro

-ic-a ‘group of three, Trinity’, Rus tro

j-k-a ‘troika, three-horse sleigh, group

of three people (e.g. a three-person junta, etc.)’.

8.6.1.4 Distributive numeral expressions

Slavic uses the preposition po to express the idea of ‘x each’. Po most often here

takes the accusative, but in Czech and Sorbian it takes the locative; in Ukrainian

8.6 Word formation and other parts of speech 467

and Belarusian ‘one’ takes the locative and other numerals the accusative; and in

Russian ‘one’ takes the dative, ‘2–4’ the accusative (¼ nominative form), and other

numerals may take either case. The construction does not allow constituents

between po and the numeral, and so constitutes a case of virtual prefixation, in

spite of the orthographic convention of writing the two elements as separate words

(further, in Russian po is stressed before ‘two’ and ‘three’):

(96) Rus da

li ı

mpo

dv-a

blok-a

gave-Pl they-Dat Prep two-Acc apple-GenSg

‘they gave them two apples each’

8.6.1.5 De-numeral adverbs

A small, marginal and unproductive group of de-numeral words expresses ‘how

many times’: Cz dva-kra

t, Rus dva

-zˇdy, Mac dva-pati ‘twice’. Sorbian has two such

forms: dwaj-kro

and dwo

j-ce ‘twice’.

8.6.2 Pronouns, determiners and pro-adverbs

Pronouns and determiners, and some adverbs, undergo special types of word

formation involving semantic modification with prefixes or suffixes. The word-

categories involved are interrogatives, relatives, negatives, and specifics and inde-

finites. None of the patterns is productive.

The prefix-pronoun nexus may be interrupted by prepositions, if they occur, so

making these formations an unusual kind of word:

(97) ‘no-one’ NomSg InstrSg Prep+InstrSg (‘with no-one’)

B/C/S nı``-(t)ko nı``-k



imnı`` sk



Bel ni-xto

ni-kı

mnizkı

8.6.2.1 Interrogative

The formation of the interrogative forms, like English

WH-words of the who? when?

type, is usually regarded as part of either etymology or lexicology. But it is useful to

present them here to see how the various systems interrelate. The interrogatives

are identical or similar to the corresponding relative forms, and mostly show a j-,or

k-/c

ˇ-

(the last by palatalization), where the definite/demonstrative has t-:

(98a) ‘so, thus’, ‘how’

B/C/S ta

ko/ka

ko Sln tako

/kako

Mac taka/kako

Blg taka

/kak Bel, Ukr tak/jak Rus tak/kak

Pol, Cz tak/jak Sorb tak/kak Slk tak/ako

468 8. Word formation