Sultanov B.K. Kazakhstan Today

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activities by sectoral ministries are expected to be ﬁ nanced through

the Committee.

The Science Fund, which was established within the Education

and Science Ministry as a joint-stock company with the government

having a 100% stake, is authorised to ﬁ nance development work, as

well as scientiﬁ c and technical, risk, and initiative projects. The Fund’s

strategic goal is to support world-class research and development ap-

plications that could prove effective, selected on a tender basis.

The change of the HSTC’s status and the establishment of the

Science Committee and the Science Fund have strengthened the

institutional basis for support and innovations, and helped Kazakh

scholars better understand global trends and focus on the priorities

that are conducive to improving the country’s competitiveness.

Other improvements include the introduction of the targeted ﬁ nanc-

ing of research, the creation of a state scientiﬁ c and technical expert

body, and the update of the respective legislative framework.

Five national scientiﬁ c centres (the National Nuclear Centre and

the National Centres for Advanced Processing of Minerals, Biotech-

nologies, Electronic Engineering, and Communications) are working

to preserve the potential of the major sectoral scientiﬁ c institutions

that are leaders in their respective disciplines.

The primary objective of these centres is to ensure the industrial

application of scientiﬁ c products that have been fully commercialised

and patented, and have successfully passed commercial tests and

proved their technical and economic effectiveness.

In addition, three scientiﬁ c centres (for geosciences and enrichment

metallurgy, and biological and astrophysical research) have been set

up within academic research institutes. These centres are intended

to focus science and technology on the priority areas of fundamental

studies and enhance the fundamental science’s contribution to the

socioeconomic development.

In August 2005, the Education and Science Ministry’s National

Biotechnology Centre (NBC) was created. Its objectives are to ad-

vance research in the ﬁ eld of biotechnology, and develop the main

areas of research in accordance with the state scientiﬁ c and technical

priorities, subject to their socioeconomic importance.

The NBC’s main activities are fundamental and applied research,

into resource-saving, environmentally friendly, and wasteless tech-

nologies in particular; creation of knowledge-intensive production

while ensuring the protection of intellectual property and the com-

mercialisation of domestic technologies, as well as the transfer of

foreign ones, to meet the demands of agriculture, healthcare, environ-

ment protection, food and processing sectors; and the preparation and

professional development of specialists.

NBC is the lead organisation that has been coordinating the fol-

lowing applied scientiﬁ c and technical programmes: Development of

Up-to-Date Technologies to Form the Biotechnology Cluster in the

Republic of Kazakhstan for 2006-2008; Avian Inﬂ uenza: Study and

Development of Control Aids and Measures for 2006-2008; Scientiﬁ c

and Technical Backup of Biological and Chemical Security of the

Republic of Kazakhstan for 2006-2008; and Scientiﬁ c and Technical

Backup of the Monitoring and Genetic Mapping of Highly Infectious

Anti-Crop and Anti-Animal Agents to Ensure the Biological Security

of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2004-2006 (completed).

Thirty scientiﬁ c institutions, including six research centres (Au-

burn University, University of Texas and University of California from

the U.S., the French National Centre for Scientiﬁ c Research (Centre

National de la Recherche Scientiﬁ que), Nagasaki University from

Japan, and the Vector State Scientiﬁ c Virology and Biotechnology

Centre from Russia) have taken part in the implementation of these

programmes.

In July 2007, the Geoscience and Enrichment Metallurgy Centre

was established. Its subsidiaries include the Physics and Technology

Institute, the Satpayev Institute of Geological Sciences, the Geography

Institute, the Seismology Institute, the Akhmedsaﬁ n Hydrogeology

and Hydrophysics Institute, and the Altai Geology and Environment

Institute.

The centre’s activities include the creation and advancement of a

modern scientiﬁ c and production cluster in the area of hydrocarbon

and mineral exploration, production, recovery and advanced process-

ing; generation of new materials; maintenance of environment, water

and seismic security; and sustainable development of production and

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natural complexes in accordance with Kazakhstan’s strategic priorities

to become one of the top 50 most competitive countries.

The centre employs 1,534 specialists, including 15 academicians,

135 doctors of science, and 247 candidates of science.

In March 2004, the Astrophysical Research Centre was established

by merger of the Space Studies Institute, the Ionosphere Institute, and

the Fesenkov Astrophysical Institute, who were made subsidiaries.

Its core activities are astrophysical observations and theoretical stud-

ies of galactic and extragalactic objects (stars and primary planets);

research into the mechanisms of solar-terrestrial relationships (the

study of dynamic processes that determine the interaction of spheres

(atmosphere, ionosphere, magnetosphere) based on the monitoring

of mesosphere, ionosphere, the geomagnetic ﬁ eld, and cosmic rays)

to develop the physical principles for forecasting space weather over

Kazakhstan; development of the fundamentals of remote sensing, and

the methods and technologies of space monitoring and environmental

forecasting of the human impact on the country’s natural and economic

complexes; and creation of new technologies in the areas of space

materials science and the physics of metals.

The National Scientiﬁ c Centre for Motherhood and Childhood

(Astana), the Syzganov National Scientiﬁ c Surgery Centre, and other

major scientiﬁ c institutions are making their important contribution

to the scientiﬁ c advancement of Kazakhstan.

The State Scientiﬁ c Development Programme for 2007-2012

has become a new impetus for the advancement of science. This

programme has begun to reform administration in the ﬁ eld in order

to optimise scientiﬁ c institutions’ activities; enhance ﬁ nancing; or-

ganise new forms of scientiﬁ c activities; solidify the material and

technical base for scientiﬁ c research; improve innovative potential;

strengthen ties between science and production; ensure that scientiﬁ c

technologies and products are given practical application; and raise

the economic effectiveness of science.

The period of 2007 to 2009 was a preparatory stage for the pro-

gramme. The legislative framework has been adjusted to modify the

administration of science and technology, and reform the ﬁ nancing

of R&D and engineering.

In 2010-2012, the programme will focus on 1) the integration of

science and education; 2) the preparation of scientiﬁ c personnel; and

3) the development of scientiﬁ c infrastructure to improve domestic

science’s contribution to production.

Additionally, the programme plans to set up ﬁ ve state-of-the-art

national laboratories, which will cooperate directly with the best

scientiﬁ c centres worldwide. These laboratories will serve as the base

for centres in 15 regional universities, which will undertake research

in the priority ﬁ elds of applied technology under the guidance of the

laboratories.

Business incubators, which are intended to commercialise small

technical projects and will be located in research centres and universi-

ties, will make a substantial contribution to the advancement of the

production-orientated branches of knowledge.

The establishment of the Samgau National Science and Technology

Holding Company is among the most recent administrative decisions.

The company will coordinate the development of IT.

Public-private partnership is extremely important to the advance-

ment of national science. It is understood that private businesses

should be involved in the development of applied products and in the

creation of innovative infrastructure, and should play a leading part

in technological modernisation.

In future, it is planned that R&D will be ﬁ nanced by private inves-

tors through venture funds or on a contractual basis. Amendments to

the Tax Code regarding the treatment of R&D costs as deductibles

are expected to stimulate private sector demand.

By 2012, the private sector is expected to pay 50% of the national

R&D costs, compared to 7% in 2005. In the end, it is expected that

the private sector will ﬁ nance two thirds of the national R&D costs.

In the recent years, Kazakhstan’s government has been working

intensively to bring the national patent laws in compliance with the

modern international requirements. This has been instigated by the

fact that Kazakhstan had become attractive to both domestic and

foreign applicants.

The budget allocations for science remain a key factor for scientiﬁ c

progress. In 2005, investment in science exceeded 12.4 billion tenge

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(an increase by 5.8 times on 2000), and by 2012 it is expected to total

up to 350 billion tenge a year (a 25-fold increase).

The budget allocations for the Science Development Programme for

2007-2012 will total 43,386,200,000 tenge, including 24,133,700,000

for Phase I (2007-2009) and 19,252,500,000 for Phase II.

In future, the national budget expenditure on science will be at least

2% to 2.5% of GDP. This is comparable with the level of expenditure

in developed countries.

During the years since independence, Kazakhstan’s science has

achieved impressive results, some of which have been recognised

worldwide.

There are plans to renew and expand the existing chemical and

petrochemical enterprises using domestic technologies. Effective and

competitive small to medium oil, gas and coal processing facilities

will be built.

The achievements in the ﬁ eld of social sciences include the ﬁ nd-

ings on the formation of the Kazakh ethnic territory and on the history

of the Kazakh nationhood and the national liberation movement, as

well as the closed gaps in the history of Kazakhstan’s literature and

ﬁ ne arts in the early 20

century.

In the area of physics and mathematics, the following develop-

ments have been made: an automated air pollution forecasting system

for industrial cities; the theory of multi-purpose automatic control

systems for deterministic and stochastic complex processes; and the

fundamentals of the computer-aided design of multifunctional new-

generation materials. A high-resolution electrostatic energy analyser

and a special composite spectrometer for the analysis of fractured

surfaces have been developed. A methodology for forecasting the

yield of cereal crops with the help of remote sensing and ground sur-

veillance has been made available. The agroclimatological zoning of

Kazakhstan has been calculated. The condition of the areas adjacent

to the Caspian and Aral Seas has been studied and the reasons for

environmental crises there have been analysed.

The achievements in the ﬁ eld of geoscience are as follows: new

fundamentals of metallogenic and ore-formation analysis have been

developed; a series of geologic and economic maps, with elements of

forecasting, has been prepared to show the condition and prospects of

the main types of Kazakhstan’s mineral resources; the country’s oil

and gas map has been issued; new advanced geographic information

systems and hydrogeological databases have been developed; and

physical and dynamic earthquake source models have been created.

Signiﬁ cant achievements have also been made in the area of

non-ferrous metallurgy. New technologies have been theorised and

developed, and new promising metallurgical and enrichment processes

have been launched at enterprises in Kazakhstan and the CIS.

The developments in the area of chemical technology include new

high-performance catalysts and catalytic processes for the reﬁ ning of

Kazakh oil; and a series of new synthesised monomers and polymers,

on the basis of which high-strength composite materials and water-

soluble polymers have been obtained.

A new niacin technology has been patented in 20 foreign countries.

This vitamin is necessary for medicine and agriculture. New medica-

tions have been created and launched.

Biological achievements include successful research into molecu-

lar and cell biology, and the structural and functional organisation and

control of the genome of higher organisms.

Kazakh scholars from NBC have created domestic cures for avian

inﬂ uenza and have made tests, together with their Russian counter-

parts, of the measles vaccine. A cartographic pasture cadastre model,

which has no comparables, and a concept of the biological reproduc-

tion of soil fertility have been developed.

Kazakh agrarian science has created and tested 193 crop varieties,

taking into account the bioclimatic potential of the regions, and has

formed a gene pool of forage (3,473 specimens) and vegetable (156

specimens) crops.

Fourteen new types, races and breeds of livestock have been

developed.

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5.3. Public Health

In his State-of-the-Nation Address for 2008, President Nazarbayev

set a task to fundamentally reform public health. “The health of the

nation is a nationwide objective… The main problem of the public

health system today is that it still does not meet the demands of

people in modern Kazakhstan. Today, we are not satisﬁ ed with the

existing infrastructure, and the quality and organisation of medical

services.” [5]

To this end, the following priorities have been set for public health

for the forthcoming years: restoration and development of healthcare

facilities; focus on disease prevention; professional development of

medical workers; procurement of medications for the population; and

promotion of and ensuring a healthy lifestyle.

These priorities are being achieved within the framework of

the State Programme for Public Health Reform and Development

for 2005-2010. This paper provides for the creation of an effective

healthcare system which would meet the modern demands of the

population.

The long-term objectives of the programme are to adopt inter-

national principles of the organisation of health services, with the

focus on primary healthcare (PHC); to create an optimal healthcare

model which would meet the demands of the population, the sector,

and the state; to enhance the accessibility of health services to the

population and encourage the population to take care of their own

health; to provide equal access to medical services and implement

the principle of joint responsibility of the state and population for

healthcare; to enhance preventive and health-improving measures;

to promote maternal and child health; to improve the medical and

demographic situation; and to reduce the incidence of socially im-

portant diseases.

The ﬁ rst stage of the programme (2005-2007) has shown that

the country had achieved signiﬁ cant improvements in healthcare:

the key medical and demographic rates (including the birth rate,

mortality, and natural increase) have improved; the rates of mater-

nal and infant mortality have stabilised; the incidence of socially

important diseases such as TB, cancer, infectious pathologies, and

mental and substance dependence disorders, and the level of trau-

matism have reduced.

The draft Code On Public Health and the Healthcare System has

been ﬁ nalised and submitted to the Mazhilis for consideration.

Rural healthcare services are also being developed. Each state

outpatient clinic in rural areas has been provided with the necessary

medical equipment, vehicles and personnel. Telemedicine equipment

has been installed in rural hospitals to arrange consultations with the

leading healthcare centres and doctors nationwide.

The material and technical base of healthcare institutions is being

strengthened. In 2005-2007, 13.9 billion tenge was provided to buy

equipment for the state PHC and emergency medical services. In 2007,

the salaries of medical personnel were raised by 50-70%.

In 2007, construction of eleven medical treatment institutions

with general specialisations was begun under the 100 Schools, 100

Hospitals presidential programme.

Although Kazakhstan has overcome the negative trend of popula-

tion decrease, the problem of child and maternal mortality is still acute.

In 2005-2007, 7.9 billion tenge was allocated to equip children’s and

obstetric institutions.

Also, signiﬁ cant funds have been allocated to provide free medi-

cines to children under ﬁ ve years of age, iron- and iodine-contain-

ing preparations to pregnant women, and medicines to chronically

ill children and adolescents who are provided with dispensary and

outpatient care.

On 20 August 2007, the National Scientiﬁ c Centre for Maternity

and Childhood opened in Astana.

New medical technologies are being introduced. In 2007, 28 unique

cochlear implantations were made to children who had severe hearing

loss. In 2008, 150 of these surgeries were carried out.

To ensure early detection of diseases and provide timely and ef-

fective medical aid and rehabilitation, preventive examination pro-

grammes for women of childbearing age (from 15 to 49) have been

launched. Case follow-ups and treatment are also being provided.

X-ray equipment has been purchased for these purposes.

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The Programme for the Development of Cardiologic and Car-

diac Surgery Services for 2007-2009 have been developed and ap-

proved. In 2007, the national budget allocated 5.4 billion tenge to

implement it. In 2008, cardiac surgery departments were opened in

West Kazakhstan, North Kazakhstan, Almaty and Atyrau Oblasts. In

2009, similar departments were opened in Zhambyl, Kyzylorda and

Mangystau Oblasts.

The Anti-AIDS Programme for 2006-2010 is ongoing. As at 1

January 2008, 9,378 people living with HIV, including 223 children,

were recorded as a total for the years starting from 1987. Because of

the adverse situation with AIDS in Central Asia, the Blood Service

Improvement Programme for 2008-2010 has been adopted with the

aim of reducing the risk of AIDS contracted for medical reasons.

In addition, eight new blood centres are expected to be built in the

oblasts.

Work is in the pipeline to compile a state pharmacopoeia, which

will set forth uniform standards for both domestic and foreign medi-

cations.

To ensure equal access to medicines, there are plans to develop a

new model for the provision of medicines to outpatients, which will

be based on government-ﬁ xed prices for medications.

In 2008, the following work was continued: the reform of the PHC

system and the hospital sector; improvement of the HR and scientiﬁ c

potential; gradual adoption of international standards in the pharma-

ceuticals sector; improvement of the quality of medical services; and

improvement of the legislative framework in the sector.

To this end, the Health Ministry has adopted a strategic plan for

the development of the sector during 2009-2011. This initiative will

help ﬁ nd solutions to the existing problems and form a healthy na-

tion. The national budget was expected to provide 299.5 billion tenge

to implement the strategic plan in 2009, and 411.6 billion and 368.9

billion in the subsequent years, respectively.

In the near future, the construction of a total of 96 healthcare

facilities is planned. Over 50 billion tenge has been allocated to this

end. It is also planned to complete the construction of the Republican

Scientiﬁ c Neurosurgery Centre, the Republican Diagnostic Centre, the

Research Institute of Emergency Medical Services, and the Scientiﬁ c

Cardiac Surgery Centre. In addition, the construction of four training

clinics for institutions of higher medical education was begun in 2008,

with the ﬁ nancing reaching 5.2 billion tenge.

Institutional reforms are also underway. The Governmental Reso-

lution dated 13 May 2008 established the National Medical Holding

Company, with a 100% government stake, which comprises the Na-

tional Centre for Maternity and Childhood, the Republican Children’s

Rehabilitation Centre, the Research Institute of Emergency Medical

Services, the Republican Diagnostic Centre, the Republican Scientiﬁ c

Neurosurgery Centre, the Scientiﬁ c Cardiac Surgery Centre, and the

Kazakh State Medical Academy. New mechanisms of administering

healthcare institutions will be developed based on the example of

this structure.

New institutional developments include a quality management

system for medical services. To this end, the state accreditation of

healthcare institutions will be arranged in 2009 to determine whether

they are effective enough to accept public orders.

Requirements for the Sanitary and Epidemiologic Service are be-

coming stricter. This structure is playing an important part in control-

ling the quality of environment, foodstuffs and water that are necessary

to maintain human health. In particular, in 2009, an objective was set

to develop controls which would prevent poor quality products that

contain melamine, dioxides or mycotoxins being imported.

Because of the problems instigated by the global ﬁ nancial crisis,

the government is considering how to improve the provision of medi-

cations to the population, in particular through the development of

the domestic pharmaceutical production. It is also taking measures to

prevent increases in prices of medications and medical services.

From 1 July 2009, the procurement and distribution of medica-

tions will be carried out through a uniﬁ ed distribution system. This

scheme is expected to guarantee the quality and security of medicines

as all supplies will be subject to compulsory certiﬁ cation in state

laboratories. Medications will become more accessible because the

sole distributor will hold three months stock and ensure uninterrupted

supplies to customers, including rural ones.

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The uniﬁ ed distribution system will enhance the effectiveness of

the provision of medicines and improve the control of their use in

hospitals. It is also expected to stimulate the development of domes-

tic pharmaceutical production. The incentives will include various

forms of preferential treatment, more government purchase orders,

and long-term contracts with domestic producers.

The year-on-year expenditure provides a vivid picture of the

government’s care of public health. The government spending on

healthcare was about 2.2% of GDP in 2006, 2.3% in 2007 and 2.5%

(383 billion tenge) in 2008. In 2009, the national budget spent 482

billion tenge and by 2012 the expenditure on public health is expected

to exceed 600 billion tenge a year.

In 2008 alone, the targeted current transfers for the equipment of

local blood centres and healthcare institutions totalled 17.72 billion

tenge; for the development of mobile- and telemedicine in rural areas

629.7 million tenge; and for the construction and reconstruction of

healthcare facilities in rural areas 17.02 billion tenge.

In 2009, the national budget allocated over 33 billion tenge in tar-

geted current transfers to implement the State Programme for Public

Health Reform and Development for 2005-2010. This ﬁ gure included

15.76 billion tenge to be spent on the equipment of local healthcare

institutions; 15.66 billion tenge on the provision and expansion of

the guaranteed free healthcare services; and 1.6 billion tenge on the

development of mobile- and telemedicine in rural areas.

The positive changes in the healthcare system suggest that it will

strengthen further.

5.4. Environment

The fundamentals of the state environment protection policy

were set forth by the Environmental Security Blueprint approved by

President Nazarbayev on 30 April 1996.

The Blueprint considered the environmental priorities of the

transition period, including the environmental issues of privatisa-

tion, and the need to create environmental legislation, state control

and expert bodies, and the economic mechanisms of environmental

management.

Since the Blueprint has been adopted, signiﬁ cant changes have

happened in the social development of Kazakhstan. Strategic docu-

ments for the nation’s advancement have been adopted; the envi-

ronmental legislation framework has been developed; a number of

international environmental conventions have been signed; and an

environmental management system has been created.

The Laws On Environment Protection, On Specially Protected

Natural Areas, and On Environment Expert Assessment were adopted

in 1997, On Radiation Security in 1998, and On Air Protection in 2002.

As for the rational nature management, the Presidential Decrees On

Subsoil and Subsoil Use (1996) and On Oil (1995) and the Forest,

Water and Land Codes (2003) were made effective.

A signiﬁ cant number of bylaws have been developed and ap-

proved to govern various aspects of state management and ﬁ nancing

of environment protection, use and restoration.

In January 2007, the Environmental Code was adopted, which

has become a very important instrument in the development of state

environmental policy. This document standardised the environmental

principles and requirements effective in Kazakhstan in accordance

with international levels. The Blueprint for the Transition to Sustain-

able Development for 2007-2024 has also set forth the long-term

priorities and plan of action for environment protection.

The Law On the Promotion of Renewable Energy Sources is cur-

rently being drafted, which will govern and stimulate the generation

of power from non-traditional sources (wind, geothermal, biochemical

and solar energy).

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In 2008, for example, over 20,000 people took part in environmental hearings nationwide.

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Chapter 5. Human Development in Kazakhstan

Additionally, the Strategy for the Effective Use of Energy and

Renewable Resources is being drafted for the purposes of sustainable

development. The Environmental Code is being amended with regard

to importing environmentally hazardous technologies, machinery

and equipment.

To improve the nation’s legislation, the government is trying to

bring it in compliance with the legislation of developed countries and

to adopt international standards. Kazakhstan has ratiﬁ ed a number

of international environmental treaties including the Biodiversity

Convention, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertiﬁ ca-

tion, the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer,

the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of

Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), and the Convention of the World

Meteorological Organisation, among others.

In 2009, Kazakhstan acceded to the Kyoto Protocol, which sets

forth the procedure for, and limits on, emissions.

Institutionally, environment protection is managed by the Envi-

ronment Protection Ministry, which is the chief coordinator of all

nationwide activities in this ﬁ eld. In addition to the ministry, the

respective structural divisions of other ministries, departments and

governmental bodies, and a host of civil sector organisations work

on environmental issues

Environmental expert assessment, permit-issuing, and inspection

work has been ﬁ ne-tuned.

Currently, the most topical environmental problems in Kazakhstan

are climate change and ozone layer depletion, the reduction in biodi-

versity, desertiﬁ cation, water and air pollution, and the accumulation

of production and consumption waste.

Taking into account the current emissions of ozone depleting

substances and the forecasted permitted emissions within the Mon-

treal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer signed

on 16 September 1987, the ﬁ rst several decades of the 21

century

will be a determinant in terms of ozone depletion. The ozone layer

over Kazakhstan and the planet as a whole will begin to repair

over the next thirty years if no more ozone depleting substances

are emitted.

Biodiversity issues also remain topical. The rare endemic and ex-

tinct species in need of protection include over 400 species of plants

and 300 species of vertebrates, a signiﬁ cant portion of which is on

the verge of extinction.

To preserve original ecosystems, with their whole complex of

biocommunities, and to save the life cycle of animals and plants, a

network of specially protected natural areas, that are considered a

benchmark in terms of natural conditions, ﬂ ora and fauna, has been

set up.

In 2002, Kazakhstan had 24 specially protected natural areas,

including nine conservation areas and seven national parks with a

total area of 2,815,800 hectares. Out of this ﬁ gure, forests accounted

for 24.7% (695,400 hectares) and water reservoirs 10.5% (294,400

hectares). Research into the dynamics of natural processes and sci-

entiﬁ c observations are being undertaken in conservation areas and

the nature records are being kept.

In addition, Kazakhstan has four zoological gardens, all the prop-

erty of the state. Their aggregate area is 1,567,000 sq m, including

447,400 sq km occupied by animal housing. The country’s zoos are

home to 7,400 animals of 823 species.

Desertiﬁ cation is a signiﬁ cant environmental problem. A total of

70% of the country’s area is exposed to desertiﬁ cation and degrada-

tion to a greater or lesser extent, which can be explained by its natural

peculiarities. Out of 188.9 million hectares of pastures, 26.6 million

are extremely degraded. The pastures and hay ﬁ elds adjacent to ru-

ral populated localities are in the worst condition, which manifests

itself in the area reduction, spread of poisonous weeds, and shrub

invasion.

The salinisation of irrigated land is increasing the area of saline

deserts in closed basins and their resalinisation. Saline soils account

for 31.3% of all irrigated arable land.

On the whole, there is a stable trend towards the deterioration of

land, including the reduction in humus content, biogenic elements,

plant species, and biological productivity.

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Because of the catastrophic reduction of the Aral Sea, the Aral

region has been declared an environmental disaster zone. The

Programme for the Comprehensive Solution of the Aral Problems

for 2004-2006 has resulted in the level in the northern part of the

sea reaching 41.4 m on the Baltic system of heights, compared to

39 m before the project. The surface area has increased from 2,606

to 3,156.6 sq km and the volume of water from 17.7 to 25.2 cu km,

while its salinity has decreased from 23 to 12 g per litre.

In order to further resolve the problems of the Aral region, on

26 September 2006, the government approved the Programme for the

Comprehensive Solution of the Aral Problems for 2007-2009.

The former Semipalatinsk nuclear test site remains one of the most

environmentally distressed areas in the country. The Programme for

the Comprehensive Solution of the Problems of the Former Semipal-

atinsk Nuclear Test Site for 2005-2007 has proved that the area is still

contaminated with radioactive substances and that its water bodies

have high content of production-induced radionuclides.

The programme above aimed at maintaining the security at nu-

clear and radiation sites. The activities included non-dissemination of

radioactive contamination, the management and disposal of nuclear

weapon waste, and the restoration of contaminated areas. Work is in

the pipeline to draw reliable radiation maps of the area.

To further restore the land at the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site,

the Programme for the Comprehensive Solution of the Problems

of the Former Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site for 2009-2011 was

developed in 2008 on the orders of the Head of State. This pro-

gramme provides for the return of more than 80% of the site area

into economic use.

The research within the Environment Protection Programme for

2005-2007 has shown that over more than 100 years of the develop-

ment of oil and gas ﬁ elds in Kazakhstan oil production enterprises

had signiﬁ cantly worsened the environmental situation in the regions

adjacent to the Caspian Sea.

Soil contamination, numerous oil storage pits and onshore wells,

and the tanker ﬂ eet are the main sources of toxicants in the Caspian

Sea. The lack of effective wastewater disposal systems at oil and gas

enterprises is causing the formation of lifeless water reservoirs, with

salt water and toxic substances.

The radioactive contamination of oil ﬁ elds, caused by the fact that

oilﬁ eld water in many areas has high radionuclide content, is also a

signiﬁ cant issue.

The health of the population living in the areas of oil production is

of special concern. Four generations of people have been living in an

area of intense air, soil and water pollution by oil products. Research

suggests that certain diseases such as blood and haematopoietic organ

diseases (two to four times higher than the country’s average) can be

associated with oil contamination.

Signiﬁ cant changes have been recorded in the life of the ﬁ sh

fauna in the Northern Caspian Sea, which is one of the causes of the

threefold reduction in sturgeon production.

All these facts require utmost attention by governmental bodies

to the environmental problems of the Caspian region. In addition, the

responsibility for the stabilisation and improvement of the environ-

ment at the Caspian Sea was stipulated by the Framework Conven-

tion for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian

Sea (dated 4 November 2003), which was ratiﬁ ed by Kazakhstan on

13 December 2005.

Following this, the government prepared and adopted a national

plan of action to protect the Caspian Sea environment.

Government bodies are also considering the qualitative and quan-

titative composition of groundwater and surface water that is exposed

to environmental burden because of the irretrievable withdrawal of

natural water and pollution by poorly treated wastewater. This situ-

ation is caused by the fact that the majority of water facilities and

networks were commissioned or overhauled more than 20 or 30 years

ago. Untreated wastewater ﬂ ows directly to absorption ﬁ elds (in

Taraz, for example) or waste ponds (Kokshetau, Kyzylorda, Uralsk,

Petropavlovsk, and Kostanai).

A signiﬁ cant volume of wastewater from industrial enterprises (up

to 24% in some towns) ﬂ ows directly to municipal treatment plants,

the majority of which are overloaded. So, wastewater treatment

technologies are not compliant with the design data. In Taldykorgan,

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Chapter 5. Human Development in Kazakhstan

Atyrau, Pavlodar, Ust-Kamenogorsk and Semei, the treatment facili-

ties are overloaded by 1.5 to 2 times.

Wastewater ponds are often ﬁ lled to their maximum, resulting in

the continuous threat of the embankments failing. In 2006, the amount

of wastewater disposed into surface water exceeded 2.8 billion cu m,

up 8% on 2005.

The quality of water supplies to the population, in rural areas in

particular, also remains a topical issue. In almost every region, there

are localities that have a shortage of quality drinking water. In early

2009, the Head of State requested that the government consider the

possibilities of using groundwater for these purposes.

In the recent years, a tendency towards lesser water intake due

to the use of recirculation and recycling systems has appeared. The

volume of water taken from natural water bodies and used for irriga-

tion, watering and agricultural water supplies have to some extent

decreased.

Another concern is the condition of trans-border rivers that ﬂ ow

from neighbouring countries and are already polluted. They are aggra-

vating the environmental situation in trans-border regions. Kazakhstan

is taking measures to resolve this issue through intergovernmental

committees set up in conjunction with its neighbours.

The issue of historical contaminations also remains acute. The En-

vironment Protection Programme for 2005-2007 produced proposals

as to how assess the environmental impact of historical contamina-

tions and repair them. These contaminations include waste from past

operations of oil and gas, heat and power engineering, mining and

processing industries, as well as abandoned oil and injection wells

and ﬂ owing water wells.

In recent times, thorough research has been undertaken to assess

the impact of military space and test sites on the environment and

public health. This research has proved that the test and simulated

launches of launch vehicles cause the contamination of vast areas

along their trajectories.

Natural sites are being severely damaged by both the compo-

nents that separate from launch vehicles and the residual propel-

lant. These issues are being resolved by the committees that have

been set up with Russia at an intergovernmental level to assess the

damage caused to Kazakhstan, and with the help of interstate legal

mechanisms.

Air pollution is another issue of concern. At present, the emission

of chemical compounds is about 200 kg per person a year, compared

to 163 kg in 2000.

In recent years, the nationwide pollutant emissions from station-

ary sources have stabilised at approximately 3 million tonnes a year.

At the same time, emissions by vehicles are growing continuously

because of the increase in the number of vehicles used in the country.

Air pollution is an issue of particular importance to the cities. In the

majority of large cities, the contribution of vehicles to gross emissions

is 60% or more, and in Almaty it is 90%.

The main causes of air pollution from stationary sources in Ka-

zakhstan are the obsolete technologies at many enterprises; a lack of

dust-trapping and gas-cleaning plants; poor performance by exist-

ing treatment facilities; breaches in operating practices; and use of

poor-quality coal in the power industry. The government has taken

measures to make the 43 largest enterprises in the country, which

account for 80% of emissions, eliminate the causes of pollution and

repair the damage caused. In 2008, a total of 123 billion tenge was

spent to this end. As a result, emissions have reduced by 149,000

tonnes throughout the country.

The aggravation of the radiation issue is also giving cause for

concern. These include the operation of the former Semipalatinsk

nuclear test site, the activities of the atomic industry, the production

and processing of minerals with high content of radioactive elements,

and the natural radioactive anomalies in the populated localities and

in groundwater used for drinking water supplies. These facts have

been conﬁ rmed by the research undertaken within the Environment

Protection Programme for 2005-2007.

Chemical contamination is another topical issue for Kazakhstan.

It involves the spread of chemically active substances used in

economic activities, the most dangerous of which are persistent

organic pollutants that are not biodegradable and concentrate in

living organisms.

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Chapter 5. Human Development in Kazakhstan

The disposal of pesticide and toxic chemicals packaging is also a

serious problem. The country lacks pesticide storages and specialised

burial sites for unusable pesticides and their packaging.

Land contamination by industrial and energy waste is one of the

most signiﬁ cant environmental problems in Kazakhstan. The indus-

tries that produce the highest volumes of waste are ferrous and non-

ferrous metallurgy and coal mining. Non-ferrous metallurgy’s waste

sites occupy approximately 15,000 hectares, including 8,000 hectares

occupied by rock dumps, about 6,000 hectares by mill tailings, and

more than 500 hectares by the metallurgical plants’ dumps.

The growing storage of waste is producing new technogenic

landscapes to the detriment of the environment. The issue of storing

and processing the increasing volumes of domestic waste is also very

important. The domestic waste storage facilities often do not comply

with health standards and affect the environment, land in particular.

To resolve this problem, the Environment Regulation and Control

Committee set up the Waste Department in 2008. In order to under-

stand what action was needed, the Committee inventoried all waste

facilities throughout the country and approved some 7,500 waste

certiﬁ cates. The responsibility for environmental violations has been

signiﬁ cantly toughened. In some instances, licences have been with-

drawn and huge penalties been imposed on enterprises.

Large-scale natural and man-caused disasters also cause signiﬁ -

cant damage. Forest and steppe ﬁ res are the most detrimental. The

damage caused by them since 2000 has already exceeded several

billion tenge.

Biodiversity is also affected by unauthorised logging, grazing,

collecting of medicinal herbs, and hunting. To preserve natural

resources, trees are being planted, new recreational areas are being

created, and hydrotechnical amelioration and other measures are

being undertaken.

In recent years, expenditure by the national budget and businesses

on environment protection has grown signiﬁ cantly. In 2009, this

spending is expected to increase by 150 billion tenge.

5.5. Gender Policy

In Kazakhstan, the policy of gender equality is being pursued in

accordance with the Constitution. Article 14.2 of the Constitution

reads that, “No one shall be subject to any discrimination for reasons

of origin, social or property status, occupation, sex, race, ethnic origin,

language, religious beliefs, persuasions, place of residence, or any

other circumstances.” [6]

Kazakhstan has acceded to the most important conventions and

declarations adopted by the UN and other international organisations

in regard to women’s rights. This has helped improve the situation

with the political rights of women and overcome hidden and open

gender discrimination. As for the political rights of women, the most

important events were Kazakhstan’s accession to the UN Conventions

on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women,

on the Political Rights of Women, and on the Nationality of Mar-

ried Women. Kazakhstan has also signed a number of statutes of the

International Labour Organisation concerning the rights of women

and children.

Kazakhstan’s gender policy is being developed on the basis of

the Blueprint for the State Policy on the Improvement of the Status

of Women. This paper sets forth the main principles, priorities and

objectives of gender policy in Kazakhstan. Its objectives are to

achieve a balanced representation of women and men in authority;

to provide equal opportunities for economic independence, busi-

ness development, and career advancement; to create conditions

conducive to the equal exercise of rights and duties in a family;

and to eliminate gender-based violence. The blueprint is effective

for the current period (until 2010) and for the longer term (until

2030). [7]

The Gender Equality Strategy for 2006-2010 is another conceptual

instrument that speciﬁ es areas of gender policy and is aimed at more

effective resolution of the most signiﬁ cant gender issues. In particular,

it provides for the creation of a training network for female politicians,

and for the allocation of budget funds for socially important projects

that concern the issues of family and women. [8]