Sultanov B.K. Kazakhstan Today
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Kazakhstan today
Chapter 4. Kazakhstan’s Economy
rink, and the Shchuchinsk-Borovoye resort, often called the ‘Kazakh
Switzerland’.
Asiada-2011 will be a powerful stimulus for the development of
tourism. Sports facilities which will be built for the Asian Games in
Almaty and Astana can then be used as tourist sites.
As for international cooperation, 23 intergovernmental agree-
ments on tourism are in effect now. Intergovernmental agreements
with Slovenia, Lithuania, Moldova, and Cuba are being discussed.
Agreements with Germany, the UK, South Korea, France, Japan, and
the U.S. are being drafted.
An important measure aimed at the development of international
relations in the area of tourism is strengthening ties with the World
Tourism Organisation. Cooperation in the framework of this authorita-
tive structure will help Kazakhstan join the global tourism community
in the shortest possible time, effectively form its tourism image, take
part in the largest forums, and exchange technologies.
4.15. Foreign Economic Relations
Kazakhstan is a fully fl edged participant in international economic
relations. The number of its partner countries has grown signifi cantly,
and economic ties have been established with many developed and
developing states. Kazakhstan is moving steadily towards integration
with the global market.
Kazakhstan’s trade partners include European, Asian, American
and African countries, and Australia.
Since 1997 the geography of Kazakhstan’s foreign trade has
changed noticeably towards enhanced relationships with foreign
countries. This has had a positive infl uence on Kazakhstan’s foreign
economic activities. The dynamics of Kazakhstan’s foreign trade is
shown in Table 2.
Table 2
Kazakhstan’s Foreign Trade
$ billion
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Trade, total 13.8 15.0 16.3 21.3 32.9 45.1 61.9 80.5 109.1
Exports 8.8 8.6 9.7 12.9 20.1 27.8 38.2 47.8 71.2
Imports 5.0 6.4 6.6 8.4 12.8 17.3 23.7 32.7 37.9
Source: Statistics Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan
An analysis of Kazakhstan’s foreign trade proves that it is grow-
ing steadily. In 2008, foreign trade turnover was almost eight times
as high as in 2000.
The main consumers of Kazakhstan’s products in 2008 were Italy
(16.7% of all exports), Switzerland (15.8%), China (10.8%), Russia
(8.7%), France (7.6%), the Netherlands (6.5%), and Iran (2.9%).
The largest portion of exports from Kazakhstan is raw materials.
In 2008, mineral products accounted for 73% of Kazakhstan’s ex-
ports which shows that the country is still orientated towards primary
production.
Therefore, the priorities of Kazakhstan’s state policy are the
modernisation and diversifi cation of economic development. This
282 283
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 9 month
2008
years
Kazakhstan today
Chapter 4. Kazakhstan’s Economy
was emphasised by President Nazarbayev in his State-of-the-Nation
Address Through Crisis to Renovation and Development on 6 March
2009, “Our future depends on further economic modernisation and
the development of basic infrastructure. We will continue to fi nance
and implement existing promising investment projects.” [2]
An important element of Kazakhstan’s foreign policy is deepening
cooperation with the European Union. This is particularly signifi cant
because of the extension of the EU and its readiness to activate politi-
cal dialogue with Kazakhstan.
The relations between Kazakhstan and the EU are leaning towards
becoming stable and long-term. Kazakhstan is the largest of the EU’s
partners in Central Asia and the CIS. The most dynamic platform for
cooperation is the oil and gas sector. In future, Kazakhstan is expected
to become the largest supplier of Caspian oil and gas resources to
European markets.
In addition, trade and economic ties are being expanded in the area
of transport, industrial production, and agriculture.
An analysis of the trade between Kazakhstan and the EU shows
that it is progressing positively (see Figure 2).
The economic ties of Kazakhstan with Russia and China are also
being developed.
Source: Statistics Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan
Figure 2. Trade between Kazakhstan and the EU ($ million)
Russia is Kazakhstan’s strategic trade partner and a stable and con-
tinuous investor in its economy. Trade between the countries accounts
for 20% of Kazakhstan’s foreign trade. In 2008, trade turnover reached
about $20bn, an increase of more than 50% on 2007. The dynamics
of trade between Russia and Kazakhstan is shown on Figure 3.
25
20
15
10
5
0
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
years
Source: Statistics Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan
Figure 3. Trade between Kazakhstan and Russia ($ billion)
At present, Russian investment fl ows into priority sectors such as
industry, construction, fi nance, transport, and communications. Ac-
cording to the Statistics Agency, more than 3,000 businesses involve
Russian capital.
Russia is Kazakhstan’s main energy partner. The Protocol to the
Agreement on the Delineation of the Northern Part of the Caspian
Sea Floor, which was signed in May 2002, offered new prospects
for oil and gas cooperation between Russia and Kazakhstan. The
Protocol delineates the northern Caspian Sea between Russia and
Kazakhstan and sets forth the principles of the joint development of
the Kurmangazy (Kazakhstan) and Tsentralnaya (Russia) geological
structures, as well as the Khvalynskoye fi eld (Russia).
Kazakh oil is being transported by the Atyrau-Samara pipeline.
The volume of oil pumped annually exceeds 15 million tonnes.
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Chapter 4. Kazakhstan’s Economy
The countries are the main shareholders in the Caspian Pipeline
Consortium (CPC). Today, Kazakhstan is third after only Russia and
Norway among non-OPEC suppliers in terms of oil exports to the
EU market.
Because of the increased production and sale of Kazakh gas, efforts
were made to agree on gas processing in Russia and on using Russian
transport infrastructure for exports. The forthcoming development
of the Orenburg Gas Processing Plant, which will process gas from
the Karachaganak fi eld, is very important. The volume of Kazakh
gas to be processed at the facility is expected to reach 15 billion cu
m a year.
Russia and Kazakhstan are jointly taking part in the modernisa-
tion of the Central Asia-Centre (CAC) gas transport system. Within
the programme for the reconstruction of the gas pipeline system, it
is planned to gradually increase the CAC throughput capacity from
today’s 54.6 billion cu m to 80 billion cu m a year.
China is also a signifi cant trade partner for Kazakhstan. Trade
relations between the countries are very dynamic. In the fi rst nine
months of 2008, bilateral trade reached $8.74bn. In China’s foreign
trade with Central Asia and Eastern Europe, Kazakhstan consistently
ranks second to Russia.
The dynamics of trade between Kazakhstan and China is shown
in Figure 4.
Energy is obviously one of the priorities for bilateral cooperation.
The implementation of the Atasu-Alashankou oil pipeline project,
which pumped 5.1 million tonnes of oil in 2008, was particularly
important. At present, the Kenkiyak-Kumkol oil pipeline – Phase II
of the Kazakhstan-China pipeline – is being constructed.
The establishment of the Khorgos Cross-Border Cooperation
Centre also contributed to the development of cooperation between
the countries. The Kazakh government is negotiating the construc-
tion of the Khorgos-Zhetygen rail line. The need for this project was
emphasised by President Nazarbayev in his State-of-the-Nation Ad-
dress on 6 February 2008 [2].
The construction of the Khorgos Centre is essential for both Cen-
tral Asia and the CIS (primarily Russia) as it will create conditions
for the expansion of the post-Soviet countries’ trade and economic
ties with China.
Source: Statistics Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan
Figure 4. Trade between Kazakhstan and China ($ billion)
The Western Europe-Western China transport corridor is another
project with Chinese investment that is signifi cant for the develop-
ment of Central Asia’s transit potential. This route is expected to run
as follows: St. Petersburg-Moscow-Kazan-Orenburg-Kyzylorda-
Shymkent-Taraz-Almaty-Khorgos-Lianyungang. Its length will be
8,445 km, including 2,787 km in Kazakhstan.
The Balkhash thermal power plant is another priority project with
Chinese investment. Module 1 of the plant is expected to be commis-
sioned by 2013, and Module 2 in 2016.
However, we believe, that economic cooperation between the two
countries has signifi cant potential for enhancement. Not only are the
energy and transport sectors promising economically, but the process-
ing industries as well. Construction materials, pharmaceuticals, light
industry, agrarian sector, and innovations are also areas with good
prospects for cooperation.
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 9 month
2008
years
286 287
References
1. Послание Президента РК Н.А. Назарбаева народу Казах-
стана «Стратегия вхождения Казахстана в число 50-ти наиболее
конкурентоспособных стран мира. Казахстан на пороге нового
рывка вперед в своем развитии». – Астана, март 2006 г.
2. Послание Президента РК Н.А. Назарбаева народу Казах-
стана «Через кризис к процветанию и обновлению». – Астана,
март 2009 г.
Kazakhstan today
Chapter 5. Human Development in Kazakhstan
CHAPTER 5. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
IN KAZAKHSTAN
5.1. Education
The development of education and science is one of the strategic
priorities of Kazakhstan’s state policy. They are a signifi cant infl u-
ence on the pace of economic, social and cultural progress and will
determine the nation’s competitiveness in the forthcoming years.
“…Almost all successful modern states that are proactively in-
tegrated with the system of global economic relationships banked
on a ‘smart economy’. However, to create it, we need, fi rst of all, to
develop our own human capital,” said President Nazarbayev in his
State-of-the-Nation Address New Kazakhstan in the New World. A
Strategy for the Next Stage of Development [1].
To this end, the government has adopted a number of policies
with the objective of making domestic education and science match
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Chapter 5. Human Development in Kazakhstan
the best international standards and meet the needs of economic and
social modernisation.
To achieve this, the government is taking measures to reform edu-
cation and science, adapt them to modern requirements, and integrate
them with global educational and scientifi c processes.
Over the years of independence, Kazakhstan’s education sys-
tem has passed through several stages and the following have been
achieved:
− a legislative framework for the educational process has been
formed;
− a differentiated, multi-tier education system (preschool,
school, vocational, higher and postgraduate education) has been
developed;
− the principles of, and approaches to, education management
have been adjusted taking into account the objectives of the market
and state development;
− a system of public and private schools and institutions of higher
education has been formed to meet the basic needs for education;
− the National Education Quality System, which includes the
unifi ed national testing for school graduates, has been developed
and adopted;
− educational institutions have been computerised and all schools
and institutions of higher education are now being connected to the
Internet;
− the mechanism of free and paid for education has been stand-
ardised;
− a mechanism of educational grants and loans has been cre-
ated;
− Kazakhstan’s education system has entered the global edu-
cational space by joining the UNESCO Education For All initiative
and the Bologna Convention;
− a three-tier higher and postgraduate education system (Bach-
elor’s, Master’s and Ph.D. programmes) has been adopted;
− credit technologies for institutions of higher education have
been introduced;
− distance learning is being developed; and
− the technical and fi nancial base of educational institutions has
improved signifi cantly.
Having joined Education for All’s (EFA) Dakar Framework for
Action, Kazakhstan is now working to achieve the goals set by the
World Educational Forum.
In the recent years, global community has begun to pay signifi -
cant attention to the quality of fundamental education, which is an
integral and paramount condition for improving the quality of life.
The EFA global movement refl ects this process to the fullest extent
possible.
The country’s educational policy aims at ensuring the quality
development of all people. The implementation of the EFA Frame-
work for Action in Kazakhstan is conducive to the sustainable and
comprehensive functioning of the sector, and its harmonisation with
the strategies for the improvement of the quality of education.
Kazakhstan’s education system is continuing to be improved. The
legislative framework has been changed signifi cantly. The laws On
Education, On the Rights of the Child in the Republic of Kazakhstan,
and On Social and Medical and Pedagogical Correctional Support
to Disabled Children have been adopted.
In accordance with President Nazarbayev’s State-of-the-Nation
Address dated 19 March 2004, Towards a Competitive Kazakhstan,
Competitive Economy, and Competitive Nation, the Blueprint for
the Education system Development in Kazakhstan until 2015 and
the State Education Development Programme for 2005-2010 were
approved in 2004.
The programme objectives are to modernise the national multi-
tier education system, improve the quality of education, and meet the
needs of people in pursuance of the nation’s Strategic Development
Plan until 2010.
In order to form an effective education model, the programme has
set the following goals:
− transition to a 12-year school education and setting up of a
system of vocational education for high school students;
− development of a new level – post-secondary vocational
education;
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Chapter 5. Human Development in Kazakhstan
− development of a three-tier system of higher education
(Bachelor’s, Master’s and Ph.D. programmes) to be fi nanced through
academic loans; and
− creation of the National System for the Education Quality
Assessment.
According to the Head of State, further reform of education is
“[…] one of the most important instruments in ensuring Kazakhstan’s
real competitiveness. The main criterion of success of the educational
reform is reaching a level when every national of Kazakhstan, who
has the respective education and qualifi cation, is in demand in any
country. We should ensure that quality educational services that meet
world standards are provided nationwide.” [2]
Within the framework of this programme and in accordance with
the Law On Education, the government is focusing on the devel-
opment of preschool, school, vocational, higher and postgraduate
education.
Preschool education is important to develop communicative skills
and speech in children, ensure their physical development, and prepare
them for school.
During the educational reform, the most signifi cant objectives
were to determine and implement the measures that would protect
children’s rights to preschool education.
As a result, the preschool system has seen positive changes since
2000. The number of preschool institution closures has fallen, and
many have been reopened (after kindergartens and day nurseries had
been returned into municipal ownership). The number of children in
preschools has grown over the recent years.
Preschool preparation of children aged fi ve and six has been made
compulsory and free of charge. This socially important resolution has
enhanced the accessibility of education and provided an equal start
for all children who enter school.
At present, more than 80% of future students study in preschool groups
at schools and kindergartens. Special private institutions (with English,
fi ne arts, or music classes) are being set up for gifted children.
To ensure equal access to preschool education for all children, the
network of preschool institutions will be expanded with the help of
national and local budgets and private investment. The introduction
of low-cost preschool models, where children spend two to four hours
a day in the institution, is planned.
Kazakhstan’s preschool institutions are held in high esteem by
parents and teachers, and have been positively evaluated by inter-
national organisations such as UNESCO, UNICEF, ADB, and the
Russian Regional Development Bank (RRDB), and others.
The priorities for school education are to ensure that free secondary
education in state schools is available at all times to all nationals, that
the quality of the educational process meets modern requirements,
and that all children of school age study at school.
School education is one of the key factors of socialisation, a
person’s involvement in social processes. It provides the fundamen-
tal skills and knowledge that are necessary for future professional
activities or further education, as well as for the respective social
status. School education has three levels – primary, secondary, and
high school, and is an essential element of the education system as
a whole.
An important issue for schools is the transition to the 12-year
school programme, which will have three stages and will accept stu-
dents from the age of six. This transition will be made in 2010. The
Education and Science Ministry’s Centre for 12-Year Education is
now testing teaching and methodical materials in 52 schools nation-
wide. Educational standards, and teaching programmes, plans, and
aids for the 12-year programme are being developed. To achieve this
objective, international experience has been analysed and scholars
from universities in the leading countries, authors of textbooks, and
the best teachers have been involved.
The National Centre for State Educational Standards and the Ka-
zakh Education Academy, named after Ybyrai Altynsarin, have been
set up to streamline the updates of educational materials and raise
the quality of education.
A tremendous amount of work is being carried out to achieve the
objectives associated with the transition to 12-year school education.
These objectives include shrinking the defi cit of available seats in
schools and providing additional seats for the fi rst grade students
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Chapter 5. Human Development in Kazakhstan
(aged six); creating conditions that will allow specialised training
in high school, in particular in non-graded schools and schools for
disabled children; strengthening schools’ material and technical base;
providing advanced training and professional development to teach-
ers in accordance with modern requirements; and developing new
standards, programmes and textbooks.
To reduce the defi cit of seats, it was planned that about 300 schools
and boarding schools were to be built in the three-year period from
2007 to 2010. In 2007, 76 schools were built; in 2008, 88 schools for
63,000 seats were commissioned under the 100 Schools, 100 Hospitals
presidential programme; and another 102 schools for 69,000 students
are expected to be built in 2009-2010.
The Uchebnik Research and Methodological Centre has been
launched. This organisation will provide textbooks for all levels of
education, and ensure their theoretical examination and practical
testing.
Particular attention is being paid to rural schools. To ensure
the comprehensiveness and quality of education in non-graded
schools, the number of mixed classes at the secondary and terti-
ary levels will be gradually decreased. There are plans to build
specialised boarding schools in rural areas for children from non-
graded schools.
As ordered by the Head of State and in accordance with Govern-
mental Resolution No. 213 dated 13 March 2004, in 2004 Kazakhstan
adopted the unifi ed national testing system which has become a tool
of independent external control over students’ expertise.
Unifi ed national testing combines a graduation examination in
schools with entrance examinations for colleges and institutions of
higher education. The testing includes four disciplines: three compul-
sory (Kazakh/Russian, Mathematics, and the History of Kazakhstan)
and one optional. Since 2007-2008, Kazakh has been made a com-
pulsory discipline in Russian schools, and Russian a compulsory
discipline in Kazakh schools. As a consequence, the tests now include
fi ve disciplines.
The computerisation of schools in 2001 was a signifi cant achieve-
ment. Almost all schools, including those in rural areas, were provided
with up-to-date computers. At present, they are being connected to
the Internet. A total of 75% of schools are expected to be connected
to the Internet by 2010.
In accordance with the EFA Framework for Action, measures are
being taken to provide education to disabled children, the number of
which now exceeds 120,000.
Disabled children’s’ rights are being governed by the Law On So-
cial and Medical and Pedagogical Correctional Support to Disabled
Children, in compliance with Article 23 of the UN Convention on
the Rights of the Child.
Additionally, measures are being taken to educate children with
deviant behaviour. Ten specialised institutions have been opened to
teach more than 800 children falling into this category.
As at the beginning of the school year of 2007-2008, 7,958 day
schools operated in Kazakhstan with the number of students exceed-
ing 2,627,000 [3]. The country also has a network of night schools
for nationals of any age (both employed and unemployed) offering
in-house, correspondence, family, and external classes. In the school
year of 2007-2008, 24,000 people studied at 79 night schools.
Vocational (primary and secondary professional) education in-
cludes a network of educational institutions that prepare qualifi ed
technical and service staff for various professional sectors.
As at the beginning of the school year of 2007-2008, the vocational
system comprised 313 professional schools and lyceums (106,769
students) and 460 colleges (499,546 students).
The Education and Science Ministry has been paying continuous
attention to the introduction of new technology in the vocational
system. Since 2001, professional schools, lyceums and colleges
have been equipped with multimedia classes, computers, electronic
teaching materials on fundamental and special disciplines, and con-
nections to the Internet.
The government has been supporting the institute of social partner-
ship with employers, subsidising students in particular specialisations
– subsidies that are paid back by the graduate proceeding to work for
a specifi c enterprise. The State Education Development Programme
for 2005-2010 and the Strategic Plan envisaged increasing the number
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Chapter 5. Human Development in Kazakhstan
of students studying under the scheme from 17% to 24% in colleges,
and from 96% to 98% in professional schools.
Promoting Professional Education in Kazakhstan, a joint Kazakh
and German project, has been implemented within the respective
intergovernmental cooperation agreement. This project was intended
to develop the mechanisms of interaction between vocational schools
and employers relevant to the current economic conditions.
The system of higher education has also changed signifi cantly dur-
ing the years of independence. The non-government education sector
has been developed, a new entrance model has been introduced, and
new requirements for the quality of education have been adopted.
In 1999, the system of higher education in Kazakhstan became
multi-level: base higher education (Bachelor’s degree), higher re-
search and teaching education (Master’s degree), and special higher
education.
Classical-type universities have been established from regional
institutions of higher education. Teachers’, agricultural and technical
institutes have progressed. New institutions, including the Gumilyov
Eurasian University, the Kazakhstan Institute of Management, Eco-
nomics and Strategic Research (KIMEP), the Atyrau Oil and Gas
Institute, the Kazakh National Music Academy, and the international
Kazakh-Turkish Yassawi University (the fi rst institution established
by Turkic peoples), the Kazakh-British Technical University, the
Kazakh-American University, and the Kazakh-German University,
have been set up. A new international university is expected to be
opened soon in Astana.
In 2007-2008, licences were withdrawn from some institutions
of higher education and their divisions that had failed to pass the
qualifi cation audit by the Education and Science Ministry. This was
done within the framework of the state policy to improve the quality
of educational services. As a result, the number of institutions reduced
to 167; their students numbered 717,053.
The government has been making signifi cant efforts to provide
social support to students. In accordance with President Nazarbayev’s
order, the government resolved to allocate, starting from 1 March
2009, 3 billion tenge ($20m) for educational grants to excellent stu-
dents who then study for free. As a result, the number of grantees has
grown by 11,500 students.
In addition, the government will allocate 15 billion tenge ($100m)
for subsidised educational loans to medical and technical students.
The eligibility criteria for subsidised loans are academic perform-
ance and social status. The preferred borrowers are orphans, students
with disabled parents, students from large or broken families, and
students with parents who are pensioners.
The enhancement of international cooperation is one of the priori-
ties in reforming the higher education system. Kazakhstan’s young
people are provided with an opportunity to learn from foreign edu-
cational and research centres, and the national education system’s
achievements are being promoted abroad. In this context, a signifi cant
objective of the higher education system is for Kazakhstan to join the
global educational space.
To achieve this objective, Kazakhstan is taking measures to
implement the Bologna and Lisbon Declarations, to ensure that Ka-
zakhstan’s institutions of higher education are accredited worldwide,
and to ensure the nostrifi cation of diplomas issued in Kazakhstan and
other countries. Direct partnerships between Kazakh institutions of
higher education and foreign research and educational centres are
also being strengthened.
On 5 November 1993, President Nazarbayev signed a resolution
to found the Bolashak international scholarship. This initiative was
intended to help talented young people receive quality education
abroad for the benefi t of the country. In 1994, the fi rst group of Kazakh
students went to study in foreign countries.
From 1994 to 2004, about 800 Bolashak scholarships were
awarded. In 2005, the Head of State, in his annual State-of-the-Nation
Address, increased the number of scholars to 3,000 a year.
A number of new concepts have been introduced to effectively
implement this initiative: scholarships for specialised higher educa-
tion and Bachelor’s degrees have been awarded for the fi rst time, and
the Bolashak awardees are now selected in strict compliance with
the Priority Specialities List approved annually by the Republican
Commission for Training Abroad.
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Chapter 5. Human Development in Kazakhstan
In 2005-2007, the Priority Specialities List for the Bolashak
scholarship was prepared in line with the country’s development
priorities and its demand for highly qualifi ed personnel in certain
economic sectors. These benchmarks are set forth by the nation’s
strategic documents such as:
1. Strategy for Industrial and Innovative Development for 2003-
2015;
2. State Education Development Programme for 2005-2010;
3. State Public Health Reform and Development Programme for
2005-2010;
4. State Programme for Space Activity Development in 2005-
2007;
5. State Programme for Rural Areas Development in 2004-
2010;
6. Cultural Development Programme for 2006-2008;
7. State Housing Construction Development Programme for
2005–2007;
8. State E-Government Development Programme for 2005–2007;
and
9. Transport Strategy until 2015.
At present, the Bolashak scholars can study in 32 countries, at 630
leading universities. The scholarship is focused on Master’s and Ph.D.
degrees. Technical and medical specialities are preferred as they are
in greatest demand in Kazakhstan.
Bolashak is somewhat of a guarantee of a successful career and pro-
fessional achievements. Many graduates hold important positions with
government bodies, public and international organisations, and joint-
stock companies and take part in various state and international projects,
making their contribution to the advancement of the country.
Postgraduate education has also been developing successfully.
In recent years, the Master’s degree was introduced as an intermedi-
ary stage between the Bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. Compared to the
Bachelor’s degree, the Master’s degree offers students heightened
expertise in an academic discipline or professional fi eld of study.
The Master’s courses are being provided by major universities (the
al-Farabi Kazakh National University, the Kazakh National Technical
University, the Gumilyov Eurasian State University, the Kazakh State
Management Academy, KIMEP, the International Business Academy,
and the International Business University and others). Some of these
institutions invite foreign lecturers.
The Master’s degree is a qualitatively new level of business and
educational services. In KIMEP, for example, the MBA programmes
combine specialised business and management courses, long-term
international cooperation, and share experiences with the best
Western business schools, which is, in the aggregate, an undoubted
advantage.
Many graduates take postgraduate courses, while the others apply
their expertise in practice. The demand for highly qualifi ed young
specialists is growing steadily.
The reforms that have been carried out in the recent years have
made it possible to make a transition from the unifi ed education sys-
tem to a multiple-option system. Students have been provided with
an opportunity to select the forms of education (from full-time attend-
ance to distance learning), teachers’ methods, and training materials.
Syllabuses have been improved and innovative and authors’ training
programmes have been enhanced.
The technical and fi nancial base of the country’s education system
has also improved signifi cantly. The nation’s budget expenses for the
development of education are growing each year. In 2007, the budget
expenses for education were 455.8 billion tenge (3.6% of the GDP),
compared to 85.4 billion tenge (3.3%) in 2000. In 2008, this fi gure
reached 547.8 tenge. By 2012, annual allocations for education are
expected to total up to 816 billion tenge [4]. In other words, in 2008,
the public investment in education was 6.4 times higher than in 2000,
and in 2011 it is expected to grow almost tenfold.
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Chapter 5. Human Development in Kazakhstan
5.2. Science
Kazakhstan has a powerful scientifi c and technical potential due
to the combination of the Soviet scientifi c heritage and the achieve-
ments made during the years since independence.
In Soviet times, scientifi c schools were established in many areas,
including non-ferrous metallurgy, catalysis, physics, mathematics,
space research, mining, chemistry, biologically active substances,
high-molecular compounds, human, plant and animal biochemistry
and physiology, geography, and botany. Social sciences developed
successfully. Many works by Kazakh scholars have been recognised
worldwide, including in the area of geology, non-ferrous metallurgy
and chemistry, and others.
Having become independent in 1991, Kazakhstan faced the chal-
lenge of building its own scientifi c base. The fi rst steps were the
creation of the legislative and organisational framework for Kazakh
science.
In 1992, the Law On Science and Scientifi c and Technical Policy
of the Republic of Kazakhstan was adopted and the Ministry of Sci-
ence and New Technologies was created.
In 1992-1993, structures (for standardisation, scientifi c person-
nel evaluation, state registration of research and development, de-
posit manuscripts and dissertations, and patents) were established
to determine the scientifi c and technical policy of the sovereign
Kazakhstan.
In 1993, the Republican Special-Purpose Scientifi c and Technical
Programme for the Development of the State System of Scientifi c and
Technical Information in the Republic of Kazakhstan was adopted.
A number of national scientifi c centres were established, including
the Centres for Electronic Engineering, Communications, Advanced
Processing of Minerals, Biotechnologies, and the National Nuclear
Centre.
In 1996-1999, a number of organisational reforms were effected
in the administrative system. The Education and Science Ministry
was formed to become the executive body in charge of scientifi c
development. The National Academy of Sciences, previously a state
institution, became a public organisation. Academic institutes began to
withdraw from the National Academy of Sciences to become sectoral
organisations or join institutions of higher education.
In 2001, the Law On Science was adopted on the basis of the
Blueprint for the Science and Scientifi c and Technical Policy of the
Republic of Kazakhstan, which was developed a year earlier. This
law governs social relationships in the area of science and sets forth
the rights and obligations of the participants in scientifi c and technical
activities. The Innovative Development Programme until 2015 was
approved in the same year.
In July 2002, the Law On Innovative Activities took effect. The
state innovation policy aims to create a balanced production infra-
structure that ensures that competitive, high-tech products and services
dominate production and administration sectors.
In 2006, a new era of improvements in the area of scientifi c ad-
ministration began. The main feature of the structural reforms effected
in 2006 was a new decision-making system, a concept proposed by
President Nazarbayev at a lecture at the Eurasian National University
on 26 May 2006. The importance of this system was emphasised by
the fact that the Government’s High Scientifi c and Technical Com-
mission (HSTC), which was set up in August 2006, was headed by
the Prime Minister.
The HSTC was intended to determine the national scientifi c and
technical priorities and report to the Head of State on the development
of science and technology in the country once every three years. In
2007, the HSTC established the International Expert Council, which
was tasked with analysing global scientifi c trends and the potential
for advanced research into particular sciences. The results of this
analysis, in the form of proposals and recommendations, are regu-
larly reported to HSTC so that it can adjust the nation’s scientifi c and
technical policy.
In July 2006, the Science Committee was established within the
Education and Science Ministry. This structure became the single
administrator authorised to fi nance research, including fundamen-
tal studies and programmes of national importance. The Science
Committee is a working body of the HSTC. By 2010, all research