Russell I. (ed.) Whisky. Technology, Production and Marketing
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Whisky
Technology, Production and Marketing
Elsevier, 2003
Edited by: Inge Russell, Graham Stewart, Charlie Bamforth and Inge Russell
ISBN: 978-0-12-669202-0
Series editors, Page ix
Contributors, Pages xi-xiii
Foreword, Page xv, Alan G. Rutherford
Preface, Pages xvii-xviii, Inge Russell
Chapter 1 - History of the development of whiskey distillation, Pages 1-24,
George N. Bathgate
Chapter 2 - Malt whiskies: Raw materials and processing, Pages 27-73, Timothy
C.S. Dolan
Chapter 3 - Grain whisky: Raw materials and processing, Pages 75-112, Tom A.
Bringhurst, Anne L. Broadhead and James Brosnan
Chapter 4 - Yeast and fermentation, Pages 115-150, Iain Campbell
Chapter 5 - Batch distillation, Pages 153-176, Denis Arthur Nicol
Chapter 6 - Grain whisky distillation, Pages 179-206, Iain Campbell
Chapter 7 - Maturation and blending, Pages 209-240, John Conner, Ken Reid and
Frances Jack
Chapter 8 - Co-products, Pages 243-272, Bob Pass and Ian Lambert
Chapter 9 - Whisky analysis, Pages 275-306, Ross Aylott
Chapter 10 - Marketing Scotch whisky, Pages 309-349, Grant E. Gordon
Appendix, Page 350
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Series editors
Graham Stewart PhD DSc FIBrew FIBiol is currently the Director of the
International Centre for Brewing and Distilling (ICBD), Heriot-Watt
University, Edinburgh, Scotland. He previously held the position of
Technical Director responsible for Research and Quality Control at Labatt
Brewing Company, Canada. He is the author of numerous books and papers
as well as co-editor of Critical Reviews in Biotechnology.
Charlie Bamforth PhD DSc FIBrew FIBiol is currently the Anheuser–Bus ch
Endowed Professor of Malting and Brewing Sciences at the University of
California, Davis. He has held positions as Director of Research for Brewing
Research International in the UK and as Research and Quality Assurance
manager for Bass Breweries. He is the author of numerous books and papers
as well as being the Editor-in-Chief of Journal of the American Society of Brewing
Chemists.
Inge Russell PhD DSc FIBrew FIBiol is the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of the
Institute of Brewing and is visiting professor at Heriot-Watt University,
Edinburgh, Scotland and an adjunct professor in the Department of
Biochemical Enginee ring, University of Western Ontario, Canada. She has
over 30 years experience in the fermentation industry as a research scientist
and later of directing Research and Development for Labatt Brewing
Company, Canada. She is the author of numerous books and papers as well
as co-editor of Critical Reviews in Biotechnology.
ix
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Contributors
Ross Aylott BSc CChem FRSC
His post-graduate life started in packaging research and development, and
contract research. He has over 20 years experience with Diageo and its pre-
decessors, working on process, quality and analytical aspects of distilled spir-
its. Currently active in risk management and brand protection, particularly the
brand and generic authenticity of Scotch whisky, gin a nd vodka. Experienced
extensive overseas travel to support spirits producers and anti-co unterfeit
programmes.
George N. Bathgate BSc PhD CChem FRSC FIBrew
Had an early career as a research and development scientist with Tuborg
Brewery in Copenhagen, Guinness Brewery in Dublin and the Brewing
Research Foundation at Nutfield. He became Technical Manager of
Moray Firth Maltings and Director of Production for Malting and Malt
Distilling in United Distillers plc and recently retired after 35 years in
the industry.
Tom A. Bringhurst BSc (Hons)
Originally entered the Scotch whisky industry with Pentlands Scotch Whisky
Research Ltd (PSWR). During the follow ing 15 or so years he gained exten-
sive experience in the production areas of mashing, fermentation and dis-
tillation, through close involvement in PSWR distillery studies, both in the
context of research projects and specific studies requested by individual
distillery compani es. Since 1996, when PSWR became the Scotch Whisky
Research Institute, he has worked primarily on research projects in the
areas of raw materials, cereals and cereals processing, fermentation and dis-
tillation. He is currently Quality Manag er, with responsibility for the
Institute’s quality system, which is accredited to ISO 17025, by the United
Kingdom Accreditation Service.
Anne L. Broadhead (Fotheringham) BSc
Is a scientist in the Cereals Group at The Scotch Whisky Research Institute. Her
area of special interest is wheat spirit yield analysis used by Scottish
Agricultural College (SAC) for grading wheat in Scotl and.
xi
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James Brosnan BSc PhD
Was previously Process Development Scientist at United Distillers (now
Diageo) and is currently Research Manager at the Scotch Whisky Research
Institute, with responsibility for raw materials and primary production
projects.
Iain Campbell BSc PhD FIBrew FIBiol
Recently retired after 41 years at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh. As a
Senior Lecturer in the International Centre for Brewing and Dis tilling he
taught distillation and maturation, including operation of the ICBD experi-
mental distillery. Previous publications include the textbook Brewing
Microbiology and editing the series of Proceedings of the four-yearly series of
Aviemore Conferences on Malting, Brewing and Distilling.
John Conner PhD
His first degree was in Pharmacy and after obtaining a PhD he carried out
postdoctoral research at the Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology,
University of Strathclyde. This was on projects jointly funded by the
Government (BBSRC) and industry (Chivas Brothers Ltd) on flavour changes
in whisky during maturation which resulted in the development of a clearer
understanding of ways in which the whisky matrix can enhance or suppress
the release of aroma compounds. He is currently a research scientist with the
Scotch Whisky Research Institute and is working on Maturation and Product
Integrity related projects.
Timothy C. S. Dolan BSc PhD FIBrew FIBiol
Held several senior positions in malting, brewing and Scotch whisky distilling.
He was successively a Research Scientist, Malting, Laboratory, Technical and
Industry Technical Manager in three major companies: Scottish and Newcastle
Breweries, ABM (Malting) Ltd and The Highland Distilleries Company Ltd
before early retirement in 2000. He has a strong intere st in education, manage-
ment, research and publication, and is a Fellow of the IGB, IoBiol and RSC. He
is a Chartered Biologist and Chemist, as well as being a Member of the
Chartered Management Institute, and has been knighted for services to
science.
Grant E. Gordon MBA
Has over 20 years commercial experience spent working in a variety of senior
management roles at William Grant & Sons, specializing in the international
marketing of Scotch whisky brands. He was closely involved in the early
development of single malt Scotch whisky, largely pioneered by Glenfiddich
(the world’s leading brand), owned by the fifth generation family firm William
Grant & Sons. He is Director General, Institute for Family Business (UK);
Deputy Chairman, William Grant & Sons Ltd and Non-Executive Member
of the Board, Laurent-Perrier S.A. His education includes Harvard Business
School (OPM30), Kellogg Graduate School of Management (MBA),
Northwestern University and HEC Lausanne University, Switzerland
xii Contributors
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(Licence Sciences Economiques et Commerciales). In addition to his interest in
Scotch whisky, he is closely involved in family business education where he is
the Founding Director of the Institute for Family Business (UK), an indepen-
dent, not-for-profit association promoting the success and sustainability of
family firms.
Frances Jack BSc PhD
Is a research scientist, responsible for sensory evaluation at the Scotch Whisky
Research Institute. She obtained her first degree in Food Science from
Strathclyde University in 1990. This was followed by a PhD in 1994, again
from Strathclyde University, the focus of this research being on sensory
method development and exploration of relationships between sensory and
analytical data.
Ian Lambert CChem MRSC MCIWEM
Has been Environmental Manager with Diageo (Scotland) Ltd since 1990. His
early career was in the heavy chemicals ind ustry, followed by 21 years in
several roles in the field of water pollution control; both as regulator and
regulated.
Denis Arthur Nicol BSc
Has extensive experience in the alcohol industry including: Analytical
Chemist at Hiram Walker & Sons (Scotland) Ltd ; Manager at the Tormore
Distillery, Speyside; General Manager at the Laphroaig Distillery, Islay;
Project Scientist at Long John International, Laboratory Man ager at James
Burrough Distillers Ltd; Laboratory Services Manager at Allied Distillers Ltd
and Technical Manager at Demerara Distillers Ltd, Guyana, Sou th America. In
addition he is a teacher of Chemistry, Physics and Science.
Bob Pass BSc
Has been involved in both the technical and marketing aspects of Distillers
Feeds for 25 years. He is currently the Marketing and Technical Manager,
Animal Feeds for Diageo, the world’s largest producer of alcoholic drinks.
Before joining Diageo he was with Pentlands Scotch Whisky Research, a
research organization funded by the whisky industry where he was head of
the by-products section. He had also previously worked with BP Proteins
on the technical marketing of yeast biomass protein (cultured aerobically on
normal paraffins) and with Dow Chemical.
Ken Reid PhD
Has 16 years experience in Scotch whisky research, with his work focused
mainly on whisky maturation chemistry. He graduated from Heriot-Watt
University, Edinburgh with a degree in chemistry and in 1989 he gained his
PhD (on the subject of whisky maturation chemistry), whilst based at Reading
Scientific Services Limited, Reading, England. He then joined the Scotch
Whisky Research Institute where he is now the Research Manager in charge
of the areas of Maturation and Product Protection.
Contributors xiii
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Foreword
During the past three decades I have been fortunate enough to have filled
several technical roles in the Scotch whisky industry, at company level (in a
very small and later in a very large company) and at national industry level,
within both the Malt Distillers’ and Scotch Whisky Associations. In all of these
roles, and more recently as Visiting Professor at the International Centre for
Brewing and Distilling (ICBD), I have been asked by students, new entrants
and experienced colleagues, whether I could recommend a good textbook on
the technology of whiskies and the associated distilling processes.
In most technical and scientific disciplines, including the closely related
subjects of brewing and winemaking, this would not have been a difficult
question to answer and indeed a choice of admirable titles could be men-
tioned in these fields, depending upon the needs and background of the
enquirer.
On the subject of whiskies – especially Scotch whisky – man y volumes have
been published on the heritage and geography of distilleries and on the variety
and tastes of their products. Indeed, the enthusiastic consumer can choose
from several shelves of such books, and every year sees at least one or two
worthy additions to this bibliography. However, for the serious scientific
student seeking to extend or update their knowledge across the breadth
of whisky technologies, there is a dearth of suitable textbooks – inde ed only
one or two have appeared in the past century and none at all, to my knowl-
edge, in the past decade. Yet the technical knowledge of distilling (and its
related disciplines) continues to be advanced steadily by a number of eminent
researchers, and a regular stream of scientific papers continues to be published
in our specialist journals.
Therefore, I am delighted that early in the new millennium we can welcome
this much needed volume which updates our scientific knowledge across the
whole field of whisky distillation and fills an acknowledged gap on the
shelves of our technical libraries.
Professor Alan G. Rutherford OBE BSc PhD CChem CEng FRIC FInstE FInstBrew
Visiting Professor
ICBD
Heriot-Watt University
xv
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Preface
There are surprisingly few technical books available that discuss distilled
beverages. This book focuses specifically on whisk(e)y and allows the reader
to delve beyond the art of the beverage, into the science and technology
behind one of the world’s most loved drinks.
In this first book in the Handbook of Alcoholic Beverages series, highly
respected experts from academia and industry provide a unique perspective
into a production process that has traditionally been cloaked in secrecy. Most
publications have treated the production process as more art than science,
despite the high quality of research and develo pment, and quality assur-
ance/quality control[**AQ] that the industry invests in and prides itself on.
The history of the development of whisky distillation, starting with its mon-
astic roots in Ireland and Scotland, is reviewed in the first chapter by Ge orge
Bathgate, retired Director of Production for Malting and Malt Distilling
(United Distillers Plc). In the next chapter, Tim Dolan who has extensive
experience in malting and distilling (ABM malting and The Highland
Distilleries) examines malt whiskies in terms of raw materials and processing.
In the third chapter, three authors from the Scotch Whisky Institute: Tom
Bringhurst, Anne Fotheringham (Broadhead) and James Brosnan discuss grain
whisky in terms of raw materials and processing. Iai n Campbell, who has
lectured and carried out research for many years at the International Centre
for Brewing and Distilling, Heriot Watt University, comprehensively covers
the topics of yeast and fermentation as well as grain whisky distillation. Denis
Nicol, who has extensive expertise working with a number of distilleries over
the years, explains batch distillation. Maturation and blending are covered by
three experts from the Scotch Whisky Research Institute: John Conner, Ken
Reid and Frances Jack. The Marketing and Technical Manager – Animal Feeds,
(United Distillers and Vintners) Robert Pass and I. Lambert (also from UDV)
discuss co-products in terms of volumes produced, markets, and nutritional
characteristics. This is an area where today there is great interest both from an
environmental and economic point of view . The intricacies of whisky analysis
are discussed by Ross Aylott (Diageo) who is active in risk management and
brand protection, particularly the brand and generic authenticity of Scotch
whisky. The final chapter in the book details the marketing of Scotch whisky
and is written by Grant Gordon – it covers managing brand images through to
xvii
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routes to market. Grant Gordon has over 20 years commercial exp erience with
William Grant & Sons, specializing in the international marketing of Scotch
whisky brands and was closely involved in the early development of single
malt Scotch whisky, largely pioneered by Glenfid dich.
One area that the book does not discuss is the variety and specific tastes of
the product. There are numerous books available that discuss this area in great
depth, but it would be remiss not to address the one technical question that
consumers always ask ... does one mix the whisky with water, with soda or is
it best to consume it straight ?
The opinions on this are as varied as the number of produc ts on the market
and there is no doubt that the experts will never agree to one best presentation.
It will vary with the individual product, the country and indeed current
trends. However, from a scientific point of view, the general wisdom is that
the addition of a small amount of water is key to release the aromat ics. How
much water and what type of water? What about soda water? That is another
debate. Ice ... even more debate!
In the end, each consumer’s decision is the correct one when they serve it in
the way that gives them the flavour that they most enjoy ... and for that
particular consumer that is the correct way to drink the product.
Regardless of how the drink is best enjoyed, this book will give the reader a
better appreciation of the science, techno logy and marketing of whisky.
Inge Russell PhD DSc FIBrew
Canada
xviii Preface
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Introduction
Nearly all distilled alcoholic beverages have similar generic roots depending
on the basic raw material, whether grape, grain or sugar. Such distillates were
in the past regarded as having great medicinal, almost mystical, properties
and their recipes were entrusted to the religious clerics of their day and tradi-
tion. The generic Latin name given to these distilled products was aqua vitae
(the water of life). This is certainly true in the case of whiskey, which is a
corruption of the Gaelic uisge beatha (again, water of life). This appellation,
spelled without an ‘e’ in Scotland but with an ‘e’ in Ireland and America, is the
generic name for a distilled product made from saccharified and fermented
cereal extracts. In some cases this definition is even more specific, in that the
saccharification process is implemented only by the enzymes of malted barley.
In other traditi ons, similar distillates from alternative sources of fermentable
sugar were translated from Latin as l’eau de vie in France or aquavit in
Scandinavia and so on. All these spirits were regarded as having remarkable
restorative properties.
From its monastic roots in Ireland and Scotland, the distillation of whiskey
developed over several centuries into a commercial enterprise in various con-
tinents. It is now well known that the first record of a commercial transaction
involving the supply of whiskey (sic. aqua vitae) was between the Benedictine
monastery at Lindores Abbey in Fife and the Court of King James IV at
Holyrood, Edinburgh in the year 1494 (Anon., 1494). The distiller in charge
at Lindores must have been a Father John Cor. because the Exchequer Rolls of
Scotland records the supply of ‘eight bolls of malt’ to the said Friar ‘to make
1
Chapter 1
History of the
development of whiskey
distillation
George N. Bathgate
Whisky: Technology, Production and Marketing Copyright 2003
ISBN 0-12-669202-5 All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
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aqua vitae’. As well as telling us that whiskey was even then consumed in the
highest social circles, it also records that the whiskey was malt whiskey and
that the malting of barley was probably a separate commercial enterprise.
The consumption of whiskey may have been partly for pleasure at the Royal
Court of Scotland, but it was still regarded very much as a tonic. It would
appear that the legitimate manufacture of whiskey for ‘medicinal purposes’
passed from the ecclesiastical world to the secular via the professional medical
practitioners of the time, the Guild of Surgeon Barbers. For example, the City
of Edinburgh granted a whiskey distilling monopoly to the Guild in 1505, and
this was given Royal Approval by a Seal of Cause in 1506 (Scott-Moncrieff,
1916). From then on, not only in Scotland but also in every other country that
has adopted the distillation of whiskey, a constant ‘war’ has been waged
between state and private distillers for control of a very valuable commodity.
There is no doubt that state control and, in particular, attempts to extract
excise duty have played (and still play) a major role in the worldwide devel-
opment of whiskey distilling.
This is not the only common impetus for the development of whiskey, and
there is remarkable similarity in the development of international markets and
brands. Drivers for development can be summarized as:
1. Existing technology to produce the distilled product locally
2. A national demand to consume the distilled produc t
3. The drive and initiative of a few strong entrepreneurs to realize emerging
commercial and export marketing opportunities
4. A commitment to supply and maintain a product of consistent high quality.
How these events evolved in the five largest international whiskey distilling
countries – Scotland, Ireland, the USA, Canad a and Japan – is described in the
following sections.
Scotch whiskey
Commercial development
Although it is commonly accepted that the art of distilling was brought to
Scotland by Irish monks at the time of St Columbus and thereafter, domestic
distilling of whiskey developed in parallel and was common practice by the
middle of the sixteenth century. Indeed, brewing and distilling were by then
regarded as staple requirements because the Scottish Parliament decreed, fol-
lowing a particularly bad harvest in the West of Scotland in 1555, that grain
should only be used in the Burghs of Ayr, Irv ine, Glasgow and Dumbarton for
‘baking bread and the brewing of ale and aqua vitae’ (Scott-Moncrieff, 1916).
The said aqua vitae was therefore being distilled not only in farming commu-
nities but also in the burgeoning towns of Scotland.
The granting of monopo lies to surgeon s and apothecaries was an attempt to
control whiskey distilling for use only for ‘medicinal purposes’, but this was
2 Whisky: Technology, Production and Marketing