Ridling Zaine. Philosophy: Then and Now. A look back at 26 centuries of thought
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Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
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Bibliography
General histories:
G.W.F. HEGEL, Lectures on the History of Philosophy, 3 vol. (1892-96,
reprinted with the title Hegel’s Lectures on the History of Philosophy, 1983;
originally published in German, 2nd rev. ed., 1840); FRIEDRICH
UEBERWEG, A History of Philosophy, from Thales to the Present Time, 2
vol. (1872-74, reprinted 1972; originally published in German, 4th ed., 3 vol.,
1871-73); WILHELM WINDELBAND, A History of Philosophy, 2nd ed. rev.
(1901, reissued 1979; originally published in German, 1892), a problems
approach, particularly good on Kant and German Idealism; ALFRED
WEBER, History of Philosophy, rev. ed. (1925; originally published in
French, 5th ed. rev., 1892), with supplement by RALPH BARTON PERRY,
“Philosophy Since 1860”; FRANK THILLY, A History of Philosophy, 3rd ed.
rev. by LEDGER WOOD (1957); EMILE BRÉHIER, Histoire de la
philosophie, new ed., 3 vol. (1981), particularly good on French thinkers, less
so on English; JULIÁN MARÍAS, History of Philosophy (1967; originally
published in Spanish, 22nd ed., 1966); BERTRAND RUSSELL, A History of
Western Philosophy… (1945); WILLIAM T. JONES, A History of Western
Philosophy, 2nd ed., 5 vol. in 6 (1969-75); FREDERICK C. COPLESTON, A
History of Philosophy, 9 vol. (1946-74); and JOHN HERMAN RANDALL,
The Career of Philosophy, 2 vol. (1962-65), an informed, comprehensive, and
judicious treatment. The best sources for bibliographic information in
philosophy are TERRENCE N. TICE and THOMAS P. SLAVENS, Research
Guide to Philosophy (1983); and Répertoire bibliographique de la philosophie
(quarterly), which the Institut Supérieur de Philosophie at Louvain began
publishing in 1949. R.J. HOLLINGDALE, Western Philosophy: An
Introduction (1966, reissued 1983), is for the neophyte.
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Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy:
(Studies): Detailed histories on the whole course of Greek and Roman
philosophy can be found in EDUARD ZELLER, Die Philosophie der
Griechen, 3 vol. in 2 (1844-52), also available in the following translations
from parts of various editions: A History of Greek Philosophy from the
Earliest Period to the Time of Socrates, trans. by SARAH F. ALLEYNE
(1881), Socrates and the Socratic Schools, trans. by OSWALD REICHEL,
3rd rev. ed. (1885), Plato and the Older Academy, trans. by SARAH F.
ALLEYNE and ALFRED GOODWIN, new ed. (1888), Aristotle and the
Earlier Peripatetics, trans. by B.F.C. COSTELLOE and J.H. MUIRHEAD
(1897), and A History of Eclecticism in Greek Philosophy, trans. by SARAH
F. ALLEYNE (1883). Equally thorough and up to date is the great work by
W.K.C. GUTHRIE, A History of Greek Philosophy, 6 vol. (1962-81). For
short introductions to Greek philosophy in English, see MARGARET E.J.
TAYLOR, Greek Philosophy (1921, reissued 1945); REX WARNER, The
Greek Philosophers (1958); and the excellent one by W.K.C. GUTHRIE, The
Greek Philosophers: From Thales to Aristotle (1950, reissued 1975).
(Collections of fragments and works): An influential source from perhaps the
3rd century CE is LAERTIUS DIOGENES, Lives of Eminent Philosophers,
trans. from the Greek by R.D. HICKS, 2 vol. (1925, reprinted 1979-80). The
best comprehensive collection of the fragments of the pre-Socratic
philosophers is still HERMANN DIELS and WALTHER KRANZ, Die
Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, 11th ed. edited by WALTHER KRANZ, 3 vol.
(1951-52, reprinted 1972-73), made more readily accessible for English-
speaking readers by KATHLEEN FREEMAN, Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic
Philosophers: A Complete Translation of the Fragments... (1948, reprinted
1983). A good selection of texts from the whole history is CORNELIA J. DE
Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
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VOGEL, Greek Philosophy: A Collection of Texts Selected and Supplied with
Some Notes and Explanations, 3rd ed., 3 vol. (1963-67). (Bibliographies): The
most detailed bibliography to 1925 is in FRIEDRICH UEBERWEG,
Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. 1, Die Philosophie des
Altertums, ed. by KARL PRAECHTER, 13th ed. (1953); the most complete
bibliography from 1926 to 1963 is WILHELM TOTOK, Handbuch der
Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. 1, Altertum (1964), 353 pages of
bibliography, including ancient Indian philosophy.
Medieval philosophy:
ETIENNE GILSON, History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages
(1955, reissued 1980), is the best account of medieval philosophy. AIMÉ
FOREST, FERNAND VAN STEENBERGHEN, and MAURICE DE
GANDILLAC, Le Mouvement doctrinal du IX
e
au XIV
e
siècle (1951, reissued
1956), traces doctrinal developments from the 9th to the 14th century.
FERNAND VAN STEENBERGHEN, La Philosophie au XIII
e
siècle (1966),
gives a different interpretation of 13th-century philosophy from that of Gilson,
and his Aristotle in the West, 2nd ed. (1970), is a valuable account of the
introduction of Aristotle’s works into Western Europe. DAVID KNOWLES,
The Evolution of Medieval Thought (1962, reissued 1964), is the work of an
eminent historian of medieval religion. ARMAND A. MAURER, Medieval
Philosophy, 2nd ed. (1982), sketches medieval philosophy from Augustine to
the Renaissance; while NORMAN KRETZMANN, ANTHONY KENNY,
and JAN PINBORG (eds.), The Cambridge History of Later Medieval
Philosophy (1982), covers the period from the rediscovery of Aristotle to the
decline of Scholasticism (1100-1600). The following are short accounts of
Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
131
philosophy in the Middle Ages: JOHN MARENBON, Early Medieval
Philosophy (480-1150): An Introduction (1983); GORDON LEFF, Medieval
Thought: St. Augustine to Ockham (1958, reissued 1980); PAUL VIGNAUX,
Philosophy in the Middle Ages (1959, reissued 1975; originally published in
French, 3rd ed., 1958); and JULIUS R. WEINBERG, A Short History of
Medieval Philosophy (1964, reprinted 1974). Useful information about
medieval Arab and Jewish philosophy is contained in T.J. DE BOER, The
History of Philosophy in Islam (1903, reprinted 1970; originally published in
German, 1901); GOFFREDO QUADRI, La filosofia degli arabi nel suo fiore,
2 vol. (1939); ISAAC HUSIK, A History of Mediaeval Jewish Philosophy
(1916, reissued 1974); and GEORGES VAJDA, Introduction à la pensée juive
du Moyen Âge (1947). Collections of translated texts include RICHARD
McKEON (ed.), Selections from Medieval Philosophers, 2 vol. (1928,
reissued 1958); HERMAN SHAPIRO, Medieval Philosophy: Selected
Readings from Augustine to Buridan (1964); ARTHUR HYMAN and JAMES
J. WALSH (eds.), Philosophy in the Middle Ages: The Christian, Islamic, and
Jewish Traditions, 2nd ed. (1983); and JOHN F. WIPPEL and ALLAN B.
WOLTER (eds.), Medieval Philosophy: From St. Augustine to Nicholas of
Cusa (1969). See also TIMOTHY C. POTTS (ed.), Conscience in Medieval
Philosophy (1980), a study of many theories of conscience.
Modern and contemporary philosophy:
(Comprehensive classical studies): JOHANN EDUARD ERDMANN, A
History of Philosophy, 3 vol., 6th ed. (1915; originally published in German, 2
vol., 1878); KUNO FISCHER, History of Modern Philosophy: Descartes and
His School (1887, reprinted 1890; originally published as vol. 1 in his
Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
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Geschichte der Neuern Philosophie, 11 vol., 1878); and HARALD
HøFFDING, A History of Modern Philosophy, 2 vol. (1900, reprinted 1958;
trans. from the 1895-96 German ed.; originally published in Danish, 1894-95).
(Contemporary works): RAYMOND KLIBANSKY (ed.), Philosophy in the
Mid-Century: A Survey, 4 vol. (1958-59, reissued 1976), and Contemporary
Philosophy: A Survey, 4 vol. (1968-71), broad coverage in essays by leading
scholars; ALBERT WILLIAM LEVI, Philosophy and the Modern World
(1959, reissued 1977), a broad treatment, and Philosophy as Social Expression
(1974); WOLFGANG STEGMÜLLER, Main Currents in Contemporary
German, British, and American Philosophy (1969, reissued 1970; originally
published in German, 4th ed., 1969), narrower, more technical treatment;
WALTER KAUFMANN (ed.), Existentialism from Dostoevsky to Sartre, rev.
ed. (1975), selections with introductions; and MARVIN FARBER (ed.),
Philosophic Thought in France and the United States: Essays Representing
Major Trends in Contemporary French and American Philosophy, 2nd ed.
(1968; originally published in French, 1950). (Chiefly Anglo-American):
JOHN PASSMORE, A Hundred Years of Philosophy, 2nd ed. (1966, reissued
1984), and its supplement, Recent Philosophers (1985); G.J. WARNOCK,
English Philosophy Since 1900, 2nd ed. (1969, reprinted 1982); and
HERBERT W. SCHNEIDER, A History of American Philosophy, 2nd ed.
(1963), standard reference work with excellent bibliographies. (Chiefly
continental): I.M. BOCHENSKI, Contemporary European Philosophy (1956,
reprinted 1982; originally published in German, 2nd rev. ed., 1951);
MICHELE FEDERICO SCIACCA, Philosophical Trends in the
Contemporary World (1964; originally published in Italian, 3rd ed., 2 vol.,
1958); HERMANN NOACK, Die Philosophie Westeuropas, 2nd rev. ed.
(1976); HERBERT SPIEGELBERG, The Phenomenological Movement: A
Historical Introduction, 3rd rev. ed. (1982); and ANNA-TERESA
Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
133
TYMIENIECKA, Phenomenology and Science in Contemporary European
Thought (1962). See also ROGER SCRUTON, From Descartes to
Wittgenstein: A Short History of Modern Philosophy (1981, reissued as A
Short History of Modern Philosophy: From Descartes to Wittgenstein, 1984).
Ridling, Philosophy Then and Now: A Look Back at 26 Centuries of Thought
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Part II
Western Philosophical Schools
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Western Philosophical Schools and Doctrines
Introduction
It is the purpose of this part to examine in detail major schools of
Western philosophy, ancient, medieval, and modern. Several of the ancient
schools presented here developed around the philosophical systems of
eponymous “founders.” In the cases of Platonism and Aristotelianism, the
treatments herein exclude the doctrines of Plato and Aristotle themselves,
focussing rather on the survival and metamorphosis of these doctrines in
subsequent thought; the original Platonic and Aristotelian systems are treated
in full, along with the lives of the respective philosophers, PLATONISM and
ARISTOTELIANISM. While the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas is treated
briefly below in the context of medieval Scholasticism, full treatment appears
with the biography of Aquinas in the chapter Thomism. The central systems
of the major modern philosophers are likewise treated in conjunction with the
discussion of their philosophies is, therefore, excluded from the present
section on modern schools of thought.
It should be noted that several of the schools and doctrines here
classified as ancient underwent revivals or reformulations in later periods
(e.g., Platonism, Scepticism); further, it could be argued that no philosophical
school regarded as modern is without its precedent in the ancient tradition.
The present material, therefore, is drawn together to facilitate comparing and
contrasting what might be called the careers of these ideas.
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Ancient and Medieval Schools
Aristotelianism
Aristotle’s work, constituting the ancient world’s greatest encyclopaedia,
has exerted an immense influence over the succeeding centuries. It is
proposed in the context of the present section to trace the course of the several
streams of thought which had their source in Aristotle.
The Hellenistic Age and Neoplatonism
The school founded by Aristotle in the Lyceum in Athens in 335 BCE
long survived his death. Its members became known as the Peripatetics.
Aristotle’s immediate disciples, Theophrastus of Eresus and Eudemus of
Rhodes, devoted themselves to maintaining and to developing his teaching
without altering either its content or its spirit; but after them the school fell
rapidly into a decline as far as philosophy was concerned, and thenceforward
until the middle or later decades of the 1st century BCE no one taught as
Aristotle had done. Then at last Andronicus of Rhodes made it his business to
bring to light the long-sequestered treatises of Aristotle, to classify them
according to their subject matter, and to publish them. His edition started a
revival of interest in Aristotelian philosophy, and numerous commentaries on
these texts were produced in the last centuries of the Hellenistic Age.
Andronicus himself interpreted a series of Aristotle’s treatises,
especially those of the Organon, and his example was followed. One of the
most important commentators was Alexander of Aphrodisias, who taught in
Athens from CE 198 to CE 211 and was known as the Second Aristotle
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because of the clarity of his exposition. Commentaries by him on part of the
Organon, on Metaphysics I-IV, on the Meteorologica, and on the treatise On
Sensation and the Sensible are extant; and in an original work of his, On the
Soul, he gives a materialist interpretation of Aristotle’s psychology of man, at
the same time identifying the “active intellect” with God.
After Alexander, the Peripatetic school was absorbed by Neoplatonism,
under which Platonic doctrines were resuscitated amid strong currents of
Aristotelian influence. The last Greeks of the ancient world to write
commentaries on Aristotle were all Neoplatonists, as follows:
Porphyry (234-c. 305), a pupil of Plotinus, wrote a very important
Isagoge, or introduction, to the Categories, as well as a commentary on that
treatise.
Themistius (c. 320-390), who taught in Constantinople, left
commentaries on several works of Aristotle’s, notably on the treatise On the
Soul.
Ammonius Hermiae, who after studying under Proclus in Athens was
head of the school of Alexandria toward the end of the 5th century, lectured
on several of Aristotle’s treatises: transcripts are extant of notes taken down at
his lectures on the Categories, on the treatise On Interpretation, on the Prior
Analytics, and also on Porphyry’s Isagoge.
Simplicius, who was a pupil of Ammonius in Alexandria, wrote ample
commentaries on the Categories, on the Physics, and on the treatise On the
Heavens.