Odekon M. Encyclopedia of paleoclimatology and ancient environments

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ENCYCLOPEDIA of

PALEOCLIMATOLOGY AND

ANCIENT ENVIRONMENTS

Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PALEOCLIMATOLOGY AND ANCIENT ENVIRONMENTS

Volume Editor

Vivien Gornitz is a Senior Research Scientist, Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia University and NASA Goddard Institute for

Space Studies. She holds a B.A. from Barnard College and a Ph.D. from Columbia University. Her research interests include global sea level

rise–past, present, and future, coastal hazards, climatic implications of land cover transformations, and planetary geology, including Mars.

In addition to numerous scientific publications, she has edited Geology of the Planet Mars (Benchmark Papers in Geology, v. 48, Dowden,

Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., 1979) and has contributed articles to several of the encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. She was a Contributing

Author for the IPCC in 1990, 1995, 2001, and 2007.

Advisory Board

Caspar Ammann

Climate and Global Dynamics Division–Paleoclimatology

National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR)

Boulder, CO 80307

USA

Mark A. Chandler

5018 Woodburn Drive

Madison, WI 53711

USA

and

Goddard Institute for Space Studies

2880 Broadway

New York, NY 10025

USA

Anthony Hallam

School of Earth Sciences

University of Birmingham

Edgbaston

Birmingham B15 2TT

Joseph Ortiz

Department of Geology

Kent State University

Kent, Ohio 44242-0001

USA

Linda Sohl

Goddard Institute for Space Studies

2880 Broadway

New York, NY 10025

USA

James D. Wright

Department of Geological Sciences

Wright-Reiman Laboratories

Rutgers University

610 Taylor Road, Piscataway

NJ 08854-8066

USA

Aims of the Series

The Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences.

Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations

and reference lists.

These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new

works published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatol-

ogists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the back of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of Earth

Sciences Series. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” on-line.

About the Series Editor

Professor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than 8 volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past 25

years he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education & Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of

Coastal Research. In addition to these duties, he is Principal Marine Geologist with Coastal Planning & Engineering, Inc. and Research Professor

at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He is a graduate of the University of Western Australia (Perth) and previously

worked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International Nickel Company of Canada (INCO). During his career, he acquired

field experience in Australia; the Caribbean; South America; SW Pacific islands; Southern Africa; Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest,

Midwest, and Southeast USA.

Founding Series Editor

Professor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked

as a petroleum geologist in the Middle East, been a WW II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic

Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with

the Goddard Institute for Space Studies.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIA

of PALEOCLIMATOLOGY

AND ANCIENT

ENVIRONMENTS

edited by

VIVIEN GORNITZ

Goddard Institute for Space Studies

and

Columbia University

New York

USA

Library of Congress Control Number: 2008934597

ISBN: 978-1-4020-4551-6

This publication is available also as:

Electronic publication under ISBN 978-1-4020-4411-3 and

Print and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-1-4020-5197-5

Published by Springer

PO Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands

Printed on acid-free paper

Cover photo: Landforms – Heart of the Colorado Plateau: The Story Behind the Scenery

(KC Publications, 1995). Photo reproduced courtesy of G. Ladd

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from other

sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowledgement may be

made in subsequent editions.

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,

mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the

exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive

use by the purchaser of the work.

Contents

List of Contributors xi

Preface xxv

Acknowledgements xxvii

Aerosol (Mineral) 1

Ina Tegen

Albedo Feedbacks 2

Andrew A. Lacis

Alkenones 4

Mark Pagani

Ancient Cultures and Climate Change 6

Vivien Gornitz

Animal Proxies, Invertebrates 10

Robert R. Gaines and Mary L. Droser

Animal Proxies – Vertebrates 13

Thomas H. Rich and Patricia Vickers-Rich

Antarctic Bottom Water and Climate Change 16

Stan Jacobs

Antarctic Cold Reversal 22

Vincent I. Morgan

Antarctic Glaciation History 24

Kathy Licht

Antarctic Sea Ice History, Late Quaternary 31

Xavier Crosta

Archean Environments 34

William H. Peck and John W. Valley

Arctic Sea Ice 38

Anne de Vernal

Arid Climates and Indicators 45

Andrew Goudie

Astronomical Theory of Climate Change 51

André Berger

Atmospheric Circulation During the Last Glacial

Maximum 57

David Rind

Atmospheric Evolution, Earth 61

James Farquhar

Atmospheric Evolution, Mars 66

David C. Catling

Atmospheric Evolution, Venus 75

Bruce Fegley, Jr.

Banded Iron Formations and the Early Atmosphere 85

Bruce M. Simonson and Alan J. Kaufman

Basal Ice 89

Peter G. Knight

Beachrock 89

Ian D. Goodwin

Beetles as Quaternary and Late Tertiary Climate

Indicators 90

G. Russell Coope

Beryllium-10 92

Jürg Beer

Binge-Purge Cycles of Ice Sheet Dynamics 94

Martin J. Siegert

Bolide Impacts and Climate 96

Michael R. Rampino

Bølling-Allerød Interstadial 100

Wim Z. Hoek

Borehole Climatology 103

Hugo Beltrami and Daniela Nitoiu

Carbon Cycle 107

Abraham Lerman

Carbon Dioxide and Methane, Quaternary Variations 118

Bernhard Stauffer

Carbon Dioxide, Dissolved (Ocean) 123

Richard E. Zeebe and Dieter A. Wolf-Gladrow

Carbon Isotope Variations Over Geologic Time 128

Ján Veizer

Carbon Isotopes, Stable 133

Steven W. Leavitt

Carbonate Compensation Depth 136

Torsten Bickert

Carbonates, Cool Water 138

Jonathan Clarke

Carbonates, Warm Water 143

Dan Bosence

Cenozoic Climate Change 148

James D. Wright

Cirques 155

Peter G. Knight

CLAMP 156

Robert A. Spicer

CLIMAP 158

James D. Hays

Climate Change, Causes 164

Thomas J. Crowley

Climate Forcing 174

Andrew A. Lacis

Climate Variability and Change, Last 1,000 Years 178

Michael E. Mann

Coal Beds, Origin and Climate 181

C. Blaine Cecil and Sandra G. Neuzil

Coastal Environments 183

Robert W. Dalrymple and Kyungsik Choi

Coccoliths 187

Jeremy R. Young

COHMAP 188

Thompson Webb III

Continental Sediments 192

Marc S. Hendrix

Corals and Coral Reefs 198

John E. N. Veron

Cordilleran Ice Sheet 206

John J. Clague

Cosmogenic Radionuclides 211

Jürg Beer

Cretaceous Warm Climates 213

Erle G. Kauffman and Claudia C. Johnson

Cretaceous/Tertiary (K-T) Boundary Impact,

Climate Effects 217

Elisabetta Pierazzo

Cryosphere 221

Philippe Huybrechts

Cyclic Sedimentation (Cyclothem) 226

Allen W. Archer

Dansgaard-Oeschger Cycles 229

Irene A. Mogensen

Dating, Amino Acid Geochronology 233

Gifford H. Miller

Dating, Biostratigraphic Methods 237

Peter M. Sadler

Dating, Dendrochronology 239

Brendan M. Buckley

Dating, Fission-Tracks 247

John I. Garver

Dating, Luminescence Techniques 249

Glenn W. Berger

Dating, Magnetostratigraphy 252

Wout Krijgsman and C. G. Langereis

Dating, Radiometric Methods 255

Chris M. Hall

Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) 260

William W. Hay

Deltaic Sediments, Climate Records 265

Steven L. Goodbred, Jr.

Dendroclimatology 269

Brendan M. Buckley

Desert Varnish as a Paleoclimate Proxy 275

Ronald I. Dorn

Deuterium, Deuterium Excess 278

Gilles Delaygue

Diamicton 278

John Menzies

Diatoms 279

Amy Leventer

Dinoflagellates 280

Anne de Vernal

vi CONTENTS

Dole Effect 282

Georg Hoffmann

Drumlins 284

Peter G. Knight

Duricrusts 284

David J. Nash

Dust Transport, Quaternary 286

Karen E. Kohfeld and Ina Tegen

Early Paleozoic Climates (Cambrian-Devonian) 291

Arthur J. Boucot

Earth Laws and Paleoclimatology 294

Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased)

and Vivien Gornitz

Eccentricity 301

Marie-France Loutre

Eemian (Sangamonian) Interglacial 302

Ulrich C. Müller

Electrical Conductivity 308

Kendrick Taylor

Eolian Dust, Marine Sediments 308

David K. Rea

Eolian Sediments and Processes 312

Daniel R. Muhs

Eolianite 319

David B. Loope

Eskers 320

Peter G. Knight

Evaporites 321

Stefano Lugli

Evolution and Climate Change 325

David A. T. Harper

Faint Young Sun Paradox 333

James Farquhar

Flood Basalts: Climatic Implications 335

Andrew D. Saunders

Foraminifera 338

Harry J. Dowsett

Geochemical Proxies (Non-Isotopic) 341

Matthew J. Higginson

Glacial Erratics 354

Patrick M. Colgan

Glacial Eustasy 354

Stephen F. Pekar

Glacial Geomorphology 361

John Menzies

Glacial Isostasy 374

Kurt Lambeck

Glacial Megalakes 380

Victor R. Baker

Glacial Sediments 382

Douglas I. Benn

Glaciations, Pre-Quaternary 384

Emmanuelle Arnaud and I. Peter Martini

Glaciations, Quaternary 389

Shawn J. Marshall

Glaciofluvial Sediments 394

Douglas I. Benn

Glaciomarine Sediments 395

Kathy Licht

Glendonite/Ikaite 396

Ian P. Swainson

“Greenhouse” (Warm) Climates 397

Darren R. Gröcke

Heat Transport, Oceanic and Atmospheric 407

Dan Seidov

Heinrich Events 409

Sidney Hemming

History of Paleoclimatology 414

Rhodes W. Fairbridge

(deceased)

History of Paleoclimatology – Biographies 428

Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased)

and Vivien Gornitz

Holocene Climates 438

Neil Roberts

Holocene Treeline Fluctuations 442

Mel A. Reasoner and Willy Tinner

Human Evolution and Climate Change 446

Gail M. Ashley

Hypsithermal 451

Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased)

Ice Cores, Antarctica and Greenland 453

Dominique Raynaud and Frédéric Parrenin

Ice Cores, Mountain Glaciers 457

Lonnie G. Thompson

“Icehouse” (Cold) Climates 463

Paul K. Link

Ice-Rafted Debris (IRD) 471

Julian A. Dowdeswell

CONTENTS vii

Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) 473

Manik Talwani

Interstadials 477

Wim Z. Hoek

Iron and Climate Change 478

David Archer

Isotope Fractionation 479

Dieter A. Wolf-Gladrow and Richard E. Zeebe

Kames 483

Peter G. Knight

Kettles 483

Peter G. Knight

Lacustrine Sediments 485

Bernd Zolitschka and Dirk Enters

Lake-Level Fluctuations 489

Mark B. Abbott and Lesleigh Anderson

Last Glacial Maximum 493

David Q. Bowen

Last Glacial Termination 495

Didier Paillard

Late Paleozoic Paleoclimates 498

Anne Raymond and Christopher R. Scotese

Late Quaternary Megafloods 504

Victor R. Baker

Late Quaternary-Holocene Vegetation Modeling 507

Jed O. Kaplan

Laterite 514

Michael Widdowson

Laurentide Ice Sheet 517

Arthur S. Dyke

Little Ice Age 520

Drew T. Shindell

Loess Deposits 522

Konstantin G. Dlussky

Marine Biogenic Sediments 525

Wolfgang H. Berger and Gerold Wefer

Marine Carbon Geochemistry 533

David Archer

Marine Clay Minerals 539

Alastair Ruffell

Mars: Water and Past Climates 540

Phillip R. Christensen

Mass Extinctions: Role of Climate 547

Garland R. Upchurch, Jr.

Maunder Minimum 550

Drew T. Shindell

Medieval Warm Period 551

Rhodes W. Fairbridge

(deceased)

Mesozoic Climates 554

Gregory D. Price

Messinian Salinity Crisis 559

Stefano Lugli

Methane Hydrates, Carbon Cycling, and

Environmental Change 560

Gerard R. Dickens and Clayton Forswall

Mid-Pliocene Warming 566

Mark A. Chandler

Millennial Climate Variability 568

Gerard Bond (deceased)

Mineral Indicators of Past Climates 573

Vivien Gornitz

Monsoons: Pre-Quaternary 583

Pinxian Wang and Qianyu Li

Monsoons, Quaternary 589

Anil K. Gupta

Moraines 594

Peter G. Knight

Mountain Glaciers 595

Lonnie G. Thompson

Mountain Uplift and Climate Change 596

Douglas W. Burbank

Nearest-Living-Relative Method 607

Volker Mosbrugger

Neogene Climates 609

Carin Andersson

Nitrogen Isotopes 612

Julian P. Sachs

North Atlantic Deep Water and Climate Change 614

Thomas M. Marchitto, Jr.

North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) Records 619

Heidi M. Cullen

Obliquity 625

Marie-France Loutre

Ocean Anoxic Events 626

Bradley Sageman

Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) 630

Joanne C. Reuss

viii CONTENTS

Ocean Paleocirculation 634

Roger Francois

Ocean Paleoproductivity 644

Adina Paytan

Ocean Paleotemperatures 651

Mara Weinelt

Organic Geochemical Proxies 659

Philip A. Meyers

Ostracodes 663

Thomas M. Cronin

Outwash Plains 665

Peter G. Knight

Oxygen Isotopes 666

Gilles Delaygue

PAGES 675

Keith Alverson and Christoph Kull

Paleobotany 679

Elizabeth A. Kowalski and David L. Dilcher

Paleocean Modeling 683

Matthew Huber

Paleoceanography 690

Katrin J. Meissner, Alvaro Montenegro, and Chris Avis

Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum 696

Gavin A. Schmidt

Paleoclimate Modeling, Pre-Quaternary 700

Christopher J. Poulsen

Paleoclimate Modeling, Quaternary 709

Robert J. Oglesby and Kirk A. Maasch

Paleoclimate Proxies, an Introduction 716

Vivien Gornitz

Paleo-El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Records 721

Michael K. Gagan

Paleogene Climates 728

Donald R. Prothero

Paleohydrology 733

Françoise Gasse

Paleolimnology 738

Philip Barker

Paleo-Ocean pH 743

Martin R. Palmer

Paleo-Precipitation Indicators 746

Paul A. Baker

Paleosols, Pre-Quaternary 748

Steven G. Driese

Paleosols, Quaternary 752

Tatiana D. Morozova and Andrei A. Velichko

Paleotemperatures and Proxy Reconstructions 757

Thomas M. Cronin

Paleotempestology, the Sedimentary Record of Intense

Hurricanes 763

Jeffrey P. Donnelly

Palynology 766

Margaret Kneller and Sarah Fowell

Patterned Ground 768

Matthew R. Bennett

Periglacial Geomorphology 770

Brigitte Van Vliet-Lanoë

Phosphorite 775

Yehoshua Kolodny

Phosphorus Cycle 780

Gabriel M. Filippelli

Pingos 783

Matthew R. Bennett

Plate Tectonics and Climate Change 784

Robert M. DeConto

Pleistocene Climates 798

David Q. Bowen

Pliocene Climates 804

Alan M. Haywood

PMIP 813

Vivien Gornitz

Pollen Analysis 815

Margaret Kneller

Potassium-Argon/Argon-Argon Dating 823

Chris M. Hall

Precession, Climatic 825

Marie-France Loutre

Pre-Quaternary Milankovitch Cycles and Climate

Variability 826

Paul E. Olsen and Jessica H. Whiteside

Proglacial Lacustrine Sediments 835

Wibjörn Karlén

Proterozoic Climates 836

Grant M. Young

Quaternary Climate Transitions and Cycles 841

Mark Maslin

Quaternary Vegetation Distribution 856

John Jack W. Williams

Radiocarbon Dating 863

R. Ervin Taylor

CONTENTS ix