Mullins L.J. Management and organisational behaviour, Seventh edition

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

ager needs to be conversant with social and human skills, and have the ability to work with

and through other people. Without people there can be no organisation and no meaningful

activity. Behind every action or document in an organisation there are people.

It is the responsibility of management to manage. But organisations can only achieve

their aims and objectives through the co-ordinated efforts of their members. This

involves the effective management of human resources. However, it is important

always to remember that it is people who are being managed and people should be

considered in human terms. Unlike physical resources, people are not owned by the

organisation. People bring their own perceptions, feelings and attitudes towards the

organisation, systems and styles of management, their duties and responsibilities, and

the conditions under which they are working. At the heart of successful management

is the problem of integrating the individual and the organisation, and this requires an

understanding of both human personality and formal organisations.

CHAPTER 2 THE NATURE OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Figure 2.4 Management as the cornerstone of organisational effectiveness

Patterns of

human

behaviour

The fact is that management ultimately depends on an understanding of human nature. I

suggest it goes much further than that. In the first place, good management depends on the

acceptance of certain basic values. It cannot be achieved without honesty and integrity, or

without consideration for the interests of others. Secondly, it is the understanding of

human foibles that we all share, such as jealousy, envy, status, prejudice, perception, tem-

perament, motivation and talent, which provides the greatest challenge to managers.

HRH The Duke of Edinburgh, Institute of Management Patron

Human behaviour is capricious, and scientific methods or principles of behaviour

cannot be applied with reliability. For example, in his study of job satisfaction, Bassett

comments that:

There seem to be no universal generalizations about worker dissatisfaction that permit easy

management policy solutions to absenteeism and turnover problems … There are almost never

any exact conditions of cause and effect in the realm of human behaviour.

It is also widely observed that you cannot study the behaviour of people without

changing it. Patterns of behaviour are influenced by a complex combination of in-

dividual, social and cultural factors. Tensions, conflicts and politics are almost

inevitable, as are informal structures of organisation and unofficial working methods.

We need to remind ourselves of the human aspects of the organisation and the idio-

syncratic behaviour of individuals. For example, Egan refers to the importance of the

shadow side of the organisation: that is, those things not found on organisation charts

or in company manuals – the covert, and often undiscussed, activities of people which

affect both the productivity and quality of working life of an organisation.

The people–organisation relationship

In the belief of the author, the majority of people come to work with the original atti-

tude of being eager to do a good job, and desirous of performing well and to the best of

their abilities. People generally respond in the manner in which they are treated.

Where actual performance fails to match the ideal this is largely a result of how staff

perceive they are treated by management and the management function.

Many problems in the people–organisation relationship arise not so much from what

management does, but the manner in which it is done. Often, it is not so much the

intent but the manner of implementation that is the root cause of staff unrest and dissatis-

faction. For example, staff may agree on the need to introduce new technology to retain the

competitive efficiency of the organisation, but feel resentment about the lack of pre-plan-

ning, consultation, retraining programmes, participation in agreeing new working practices

and wage rates, and similar considerations arising from the manner of its introduction.

Therefore, a heavy responsibility is placed on managers and the activity of manage-

ment – on the processes, systems and styles of management. Accordingly, how

managers exercise the responsibility for, and duties of, management is important.

Attention must be given to the work environment, and appropriate systems of motiva-

tion, job satisfaction and rewards. It is important to remember that improvement in

organisational performance will only come about through people.

Management should, therefore, endeavour to create the right balance between the

interrelated elements which make up the total organisation, and to weld these into

coherent patterns of activity best suited to the external environment in which the

organisation is operating. Consideration must be given to developing an organisational

climate in which people work willingly and effectively.

People and organisations need each other. Attention should be focused, therefore,

on improving the people–organisation relationship. Management is an integral part

of this relationship. It should serve to reconcile the needs of people at work with the

requirements of the organisation. Management is essentially an integrating activity

which permeates every facet of the operations of the organisation. The style of man-

agement adopted can be seen as a function of the manager’s attitudes towards people,

and assumptions about human nature and behaviour (discussed in Chapter 7).

The general movement towards flatter organisation structures, flexible working and

greater employee involvement has placed increasing emphasis on an integrating rather

than a hierarchical/controlling style of management.

Management processes in the new millennium will be much more behavioural in nature, focus-

ing on the key human resource-driven issues: learning, team-based visions, driving human

resource processes, incentives to enhance growth, holistic budgeting, and proactive controls.

PART 1 MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Providing the

right balance

One significant aspect of organisational behaviour and the relationship between the

individual and the organisation is the concept of the psychological contract. This is not

a written document, but implies a series of mutual expectations and satisfaction of

needs arising from the people–organisation relationship. It involves a process of giving

and receiving by the individual and by the organisation. The psychological contract

covers a range of expectations of rights and privileges, duties and obligations, which

do not form part of a formal agreement but still have an important influence on

people’s behaviour.

The nature and extent of individuals’ expectations vary widely as do the ability and

willingness of the organisation to meet them. It is difficult to list the range of implicit

expectations that individuals have and they change over time. These expectations are

notwithstanding any statutory requirements placed upon the organisation; instead

they relate more to the idea of a social responsibility of management, discussed in

Chapter 5. The organisation will also have implicit expectations of its members. The

organisational side of the psychological contract places emphasis on expectations,

requirements and constraints that may differ from, and may conflict with, an individ-

ual’s expectations. Some possible examples of the individual’s and the organisation’s

expectations are given in Figure 2.5.

It is unlikely that all expectations of the individual or of the organisation will be met

fully. There is a continual process of balancing, and explicit and implicit bargaining.

The nature of these expectations is not defined formally, and although the individual

member and the organisation may not be aware consciously of them, they still affect

relationships between them and have an influence on behaviour.

The psychological contract is a useful concept in examining the socialisation of new

members of staff to the organisation. According to Kotter, for example, early experiences

have a major effect on an individual’s subsequent career in an organisation, and influence

job satisfaction, attitude and level of productivity. The extent of the matches between indi-

vidual and organisational expectations also influences the willingness of people to stay

with the organisation and of the organisation to continue to employ them.

Stalker suggests that successful companies are those that have the ability to balance the

unwritten needs of their employees with the needs of the company. Such companies use

a simple formula of Caring, Communicating, Listening, Knowing and Rewarding.

■ Caring – demonstrating genuine concern for individuals working in the organisation.

■ Communicating – really talking about what the company is hoping to achieve.

■ Listening – hearing not only the words but also what lies behind the words.

■ Knowing – the individuals who work for you, their families, personal wishes, desires

and ambitions.

■ Rewarding – money is not always necessary; a genuine thankyou or public recogni-

tion can raise morale.

The significance of the psychological contract depends on the extent to which it is per-

ceived as fair by both the individual and the organisation, and will be respected by

both sides. Cartwright, for example, refers to mutuality as the basic principle of the psy-

chological contract.

A psychological contract is not only measured in monetary value or in the exchange of goods or

services, it is in essence the exchange or sharing of beliefs and values, expectations and satisfac-

tions. Mutuality is the basic principle of the psychological contract and consensus or mutual

understanding is the basis of mutuality. Ideally therefore self-interest should be balanced with

common interest in a ‘win–win’ arrangement.

CHAPTER 2 THE NATURE OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT

Process of

balancing

The nature of the boss–subordinate relationship is clearly a central feature of the psy-

chological contract. Emmott, for example, points out that good people-management

practices are the basis for a positive psychological contract and this means managers

having to deal with the ‘soft stuff’. Properly managed the psychological contract deliv-

ers hard, bottom-line results and improved business performance.

Managers at all levels can have an influence on employees’ perceptions of the psychological con-

tract. It is, however, the relationship between individual employees and their line manager that

is likely to have most influence in framing and managing employees’ expectations.

PART 1 MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

INDIVIDUALS’ EXPECTATIONS OF THE ORGANISATION

• provide safe and hygienic working conditions;

• make every reasonable effort to provide job security;

• attempt to provide challenging and satisfying jobs, and reduce alienating aspects

of work;

• adopt equitable human resource management policies and procedures;

• respect the role of trade union officials and staff representives;

• consult fully with staff and allow genuine participation in decisions which

affect them;

• implement best practice in equal opportunity policies and procedures;

• reward all staff fairly according to their contribution and performance;

• provide reasonable opportunities for personal development and career

progression;

• treat members of staff with respect;

• demonstrate an understanding and considerate attitude towards personal

problems of staff.

ORGANISATIONAL EXPECTATIONS OF THE INDIVIDUAL

• uphold the ideology of the organisation and the corporate image;

• work diligently in pursuit of organisational objectives;

• adhere to the rules, policies and procedures of the organisation;

• respect the reasonable authority of senior members of staff;

• not take advantage of goodwill shown by management;

• be responsive to leadership influence;

• demonstrate loyalty and not betray positions of trust;

• maintain harmonious relationships with work colleagues;

• not abuse organisational facilities such as email or Internet access;

• observe reasonable and acceptable standards of dress and appearance;

• show respect and consolidation to customers and suppliers.

Figure 2.5 The psychological contract: possible examples of individual and organisational

expectations

The changing nature of organisations has placed an increasing emphasis on the im-

portance of effective human resource management, including the importance of the

psychological contract within the employment relationship. For example, from a

review of research, McBain maintains that human resource management plays a key

role in ensuring the promotion of business success and managing change. This

involves paying attention to the psychological contract and the establishment of

expectations and obligations with all groups of employees within the organisation.

The Institute of Administrative Management has introduced a new module on ‘The

Individual and the Organisation in Context’ which has come about because of the

need to keep abreast of changes affecting the individual at work.

There is a need for managers to be aware of the new psychological contracts the individual mem-

bers of their teams are bringing to work. Managers will have to consider alternative management

styles to meet this new need and to use new skills to motivate and train their staff. People no

longer come to work to be ‘told what to do’, but are aspiring to be part of the whole, with a real

role as stakeholders in the success of ‘their’ organisation. Wise managers will harness this com-

mitment for the benefit of everyone concerned.

Hiltrop suggests that the increasing pressure for organisations to change has prompted

growing disillusionment with the traditional psychological contract based on lifetime

employment and steady promotion from within. Companies must develop new ways to

increase the loyalty and commitment of employees. This includes attention to reward

strategies based on recognition of contribution rather than status or position; systematic

training and development including the skills for working in cross-functional teams; and

the training of managers in counselling, coaching and leadership skills.

Stiles et al. also draw attention to how new competitive conditions and dynamic environ-

ments have brought performance management to centre stage as a major element in the

changing nature of the psychological contract. From an examination of three large UK

organisations, the authors explore ‘how performance management processes are being

used to support moves from the traditional contract of job security and clear career

paths, while attempting to maintain commitment and morale’. The authors conclude

that there are two main areas of difficulty in changing the psychological contract so that

it focuses on performance management. The presence of mixed messages from employers

is undermining the employment relationship and changes are being driven in a top-

down manner with a lack of consultation. There is also disenchantment and concern

about the accuracy and fairness of performance management processes, with employees

expressing scepticism towards managerial attempts to implement change.

A new moral contract

The changing nature of organisations and individuals at work has placed increasing

pressures on the awareness and importance of new psychological contracts. Ghosal et

al. suggest that in a changing social context the law of masters and servants that

underlies the old psychological contract is no longer acceptable to many people. Forces

of global competition and turbulent change make employment guarantees unfeasible

and also enhance the need for levels of trust and teamwork. The new management phi-

losophy needs to be grounded in a very different moral contract with people. Rather

than seeing people as a corporate asset from which value can be appropriated, people

are seen as a responsibility and a resource to be added to. The new moral contract also

demands much from employees who need to abandon the stability of lifetime employ-

ment and embrace the concept of continuous learning and personal development.

CHAPTER 2 THE NATURE OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

CHANGING NATURE OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT

Performance

management

It is convenient, here, to consider two sets of observations on the nature of human

behaviour and what may actually happen, in practice, in organisations: the Peter

Principle, and Parkinson’s Law. Although these observations are presented in a satiri-

cal manner, they nevertheless make a serious and significant point about the

management and functioning of organisations, and the actual nature and practice of

organisational behaviour.

This is concerned with the study of occupational incompetence and the study of hier-

archies. The analysis of hundreds of cases of occupational incompetence led to the

formulation of the ‘Peter Principle’, which is:

In a hierarchy every employee tends to rise to their level of incompetence.

Employees competent in their position are promoted and competence in each new posi-

tion qualifies for promotion to the next highest position until a position of incompetence

is reached. The principle is based on perceived incompetence at all levels of every hierar-

chy – political, legal, educational and industrial – and ways in which employees move

upwards through a hierarchy, and what happens to them after promotion.

Among the many examples quoted by Peter are those from the teaching occupation.

A is a competent and conforming college student who becomes a teacher following the

textbook, curriculum guide and timetable schedule, and who works well except when

there is no rule or precedent available. A never breaks a rule or disobeys an order but

will not gain promotion because, although competent as a student, A has reached a

level of incompetence as a classroom teacher.

B, a competent student and inspiring teacher, although not good with paperwork, is

promoted to head of the science department because of success as a teacher. The head

of science is responsible for ordering all science supplies and keeping extensive records

and B’s incompetence becomes evident.

C, a competent student, teacher and head of department, is promoted to assistant

principal, and being intellectually competent is further promoted to principal. C is

now required to work directly with higher officials. By working so hard at running the

school, however, C misses important meetings with superiors and has no energy to

become involved with community organisations. C thus becomes regarded as an

incompetent principal.

Peter suggests two main means by which a person can affect promotion rate, ‘Pull’ and

‘Push’.

■ Pull is an employee’s relationship – by blood, marriage or acquaintance – with a

person above the employee in the hierarchy.

■ Push is sometimes manifested by an abnormal interest in study, vocational training

and self-improvement.

In small hierarchies, Push may have a marginal effect in accelerating promotion; in

larger hierarchies the effect is minimal. Pull is, therefore, likely to be more effective

than Push.

Never stand when you can sit; never walk when you can ride; never Push when you can Pull.

PART 1 MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

ORGANISATIONAL PRACTICES

THE PETER PRINCIPLE

Means of

promotion

A major feature of Parkinson’s Law is that of the ‘Rising Pyramid’, that is, ‘Work expands

so as to fill the time available for its completion.’

General recognition of this is illus-

trated in the proverb, ‘It is the busiest person who has time to spare.’ There is little, if

any, relationship between the quantity of work to be done and the number of the staff

doing it. Underlying this general tendency are two almost axiomatic statements:

■ An official wants to multiply subordinates, not rivals.

■ Officials make work for each other.

Parkinson goes on to give the following example. If a civil servant, A, believes he is over-

worked there are three possible remedies: (i) resignation; (ii) ask to halve the work by

having it shared with a colleague, B; or (iii) seek the assistance of two subordinates, C and

D. The first two options are unlikely. Resignation would involve loss of pension rights,

and sharing work with a colleague on the same level would only bring in a rival for pro-

motion. So A would prefer the appointment of two junior members of staff, C and D.

This would increase A’s status. There must be at least two subordinates, so that by divid-

ing work between C and D, A will be the only person to understand the work of them

both. Furthermore, each subordinate is kept in order by fear of the other’s promotion.

When, in turn, C complains of overwork, A, with the agreement of C, will advise the

appointment of two assistants, E and F. However, as D’s position is much the same and

to avoid internal friction, two assistants, G and H, will also be recommended to help D.

There are now seven people, A, C, D, E, F, G, H, doing what one person did before, and

the promotion of A is almost certain.

With the seven people now employed, the second stage comes into operation. The

seven people make so much work for each other that they are all fully occupied and A

is actually working harder than ever. For example, an incoming document comes

before each of them in turn. E decides it is F’s concern; F places a draft reply for C, who

makes drastic amendments before consulting with D, who asks G to action it. But then

G goes on leave and hands the file to H, who drafts a minute signed by D and returned

to C, who revises the first draft and puts the new version before A. What does A do? A

could find many excuses for signing C’s draft unread. However, being a conscientious

person, and although beset with problems created by subordinates both for A and for

themselves, A reads through the draft carefully, deletes the fussy paragraphs added by

C and H, and restores it to the format presented in the first instance by F.

Among other features of organisational practice that Parkinson discusses are: princi-

ples of personnel selection; the nature of committees; personality screen; high finance

– and the ‘Law of Triviality’, which means in a committee that the time spent on any

agenda item will be in inverse proportion to the sum involved; layout of the organisa-

tion’s administration block; and ‘injelitis’ – the disease of induced inferiority.

Despite the light vein of Parkinson’s writing, the relevance of his observations can be

gauged from comments in the Introduction by HRH The Duke of Edinburgh.

The most important point about this book for serious students of management and administra-

tion is that it illustrates the gulf that exists between the rational/intellectual approach to human

organization and the frequent irrational facts of human nature … The law should be compulsory

reading at all business schools and for all management consultants. Management structures

solve nothing if they do not take the facts of human nature into proper consideration, and one of

the most important facts is that no one really likes having to make decisions. Consequently struc-

tures may generate a lot of activity but little or no useful work.

CHAPTER 2 THE NATURE OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

PARKINSON’S LAW

People making

work for each

other

Relevance of

observations

The international context of management and organisational behaviour

One major challenge facing managers in the early 21st century arises from what many

commentators have identified as an increasingly international or global business envi-

ronment. The following factors are frequently cited as potential explanatory factors

underlying this trend:

■ Improvements in international communication facilities leading to an increased

consciousness of differences in workplace attitudes and behaviour in other societies.

■ International competitive pressure – for example, the emergence of newly industri-

alised and/or free-market nations (the Far East region and ex-communist bloc

countries are often viewed as examples of this phenomenon).

■ The spread of production methods and other business processes across nations and

regions.

■ International business activity, for example: overseas franchising or licensing agree-

ments; outsourcing of business units to other countries (call centres provide a topical

example); direct foreign investment and the activities of multinational corporations

which, by definition, operate outside national boundaries.

It is not only businesses which

choose to operate in more

than one country or import

foreign business and management

techniques that are affected

by cross-cultural concerns. Tayeb

reported United States Department

of Labor statistics indicating that

in the period from 1985 to 2000,

only 15 per cent of new entrants to

the workforce in the USA were

white males.

This highlights the

importance of managing diversity

in workforces within national

boundaries.

Lessons from abroad?

One rationale for taking a cross-cultural approach to management lies in the potential

benefits to be gained in performance terms. Schneider and Barsoux, in advocating cultural

awareness of one’s own society, note that:

each country has its unique institutional and cultural characteristics, which can provide sources of

competitive advantage at one point, only to become liabilities when the environment changes.

Managers therefore need to evaluate the extent to which national culture can interfere with their

company’s efforts to respond to strategic requirements, now and in the future’.

PART 1 MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

I first read Parkinson’s Law when studying for Economics A-level. Many of the laws are just as

relevant today as they were then. They include: how to ‘manage’ a meeting, and how time

spent in meetings is inversely proportional to the importance of each issue – his example is a

short discussion on a £10 million power plant followed by a lengthy debate over a £350 bi-

cycle shed. Ever been there? … Parkinson’s most famous law is that ‘work expands to fill the

time available – as we all make work for one another’. This is still true today.

Iain Herbertson, Managing Director of Manpower

THE NEED FOR A CROSS-CULTURAL APPROACH

The European Parliament building in Strasbourg, France

Photo: European Parliament

In addition to practically based benefits in considering our own ‘home’ culture, there

has been a long tradition of looking to other cultures for examples of ‘successful’ prac-

tice which could be transplanted into work organisations in different societies.

Different models may be dominant at different times. Thompson and McHugh note that:

‘In the post-war period the giant US corporations transferred work organisation and

managerial techniques across capitalist countries.’

However, in subsequent eras

Scandinavian autonomous work group arrangements and Japanese management tech-

niques were examined by and, to some extent, implemented in, organisations across

the world. Such a search for good practice in other countries is, of course, ongoing and

an awareness of how other cultures organise work and manage people is likely to be of

continuing benefit in the future.

Managing people from different cultures

Another advantage of adopting a cross-cultural approach to the study of organisational

behaviour, and to the management of people more generally, lies in the recognition of

variations in workplace attitudes and behaviour between individuals and groups in dif-

ferent cultural contexts. Brooks notes that: ‘Differences in national culture may have a

bearing on how organisations deal with each other and also on behaviour within

organisations which comprise a mix of nationalities.’

If we accept this fundamental

point then it follows that key topics within the subject area of organisational behav-

iour may be influenced by national culture and that we should therefore re-evaluate

models and concepts when applying them to other societies.

One leading writer in the field of cross-cultural studies, Trompenaars, commenting

on his own work, suggests that: ‘it helped managers to structure their experiences and

provided new insights for them and their organisations into the real source of prob-

lems faced when managing across cultures or dealing with diversity’.

In examining

the centrally important topic of motivation, Francesco and Gold inform their readers

that: ‘managers must develop organizational systems that are flexible enough to take

into account the meaning of work and the relative value of rewards within the range of

cultures where they operate.’

A practical example of the impact of cultural diversity in the organisational behav-

iour area is provided in the recollections of an International Human Resource Manager

cited in Schneider and Barsoux: ‘Indonesians manage their culture by a group process,

and everyone is linked together as a team. Distributing money differently among the

team did not go over all that well; so we’ve come to the conclusion that pay for per-

formance is not suitable for Indonesia.’

It may be extremely useful therefore to

examine academic frameworks and research findings within the field of organisational

behaviour to indicate the extent to which they are applicable worldwide or, alterna-

tively, subject to meaningful variation in different cultural contexts.

While it can be valuable to apply organisational behaviour concepts to diverse cultural

settings it should also be borne in mind that some universal theories and models may,

in reality, contain important culturally-derived assumptions. When examining classical

frameworks for understanding organisation structure Schneider and Barsoux point out

that: ‘theories about how best to organise – Max Weber’s (German) bureaucracy, Henri

Fayol’s (French) administrative model, and Frederick Taylor’s (American) scientific

management – all reflect societal concerns of the times as well as the cultural back-

ground of the individuals.’

That writers on work organisations may themselves be

influenced by their own cultural backgrounds when compiling their work is unsurpris-

ing: however, it should equally not be ignored.

CHAPTER 2 THE NATURE OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

IS ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR CULTURE-BOUND?

More significant still is the possibility that whole topics within organisational

behaviour, per se, may be underpinned by a particular culturally-derived frame of refer-

ence. Francesco and Gold, addressing the issue of leadership, claim that: ‘one difficulty is

that not all cultures have the term leader’.

This raises the possibility that meanings

we may assume to be taken for granted could be interpreted differently or not even

perceived at all in different parts of the world.

Culture as understanding

‘For our most basic common link is that we all inhabit this small planet, we all breathe the

same air, we all cherish our children’s future, and we are all mortal’ (John. F. Kennedy, 10

June 1963). There are a number of very good reasons why we could usefully understand

cultural difference (and similarity) at work, based on new awareness contributing to our

own effectiveness and moreover to the accomplishment of organisational goals. It could

also be true to say that an appreciation of culture and its effects may be of intrinsic value.

There could therefore be advantages of cross-cultural awareness which include:

■ increased self-awareness;

■ sensitivity to difference;

■ questioning our own assumptions and knowledge;

■ lessening ignorance, prejudice and hatred.

However, it would be wrong to think that increased cross-cultural awareness or activity

will automatically bring about any of these outcomes.

Adler listed the following inbuilt dangers when multi-cultural teams operate in a

business setting.

■ Mistrust – including stereotyping.

■ Miscommunication with potential for reduced accuracy and resultant stress.

■ Process difficulties, that is failure to agree when agreement is needed or even what

constitutes agreement when arriving at decisions.

Adler goes on to examine research on the success of multi-cultural work teams and

concludes that the evidence suggests that they either perform much better or much worse

than teams composed of one cultural group.

There are clearly risks as well as benefits

in working across cultures. It is hoped that an appreciation of cross-cultural aspects of

organisational behaviour can help in this regard.

Culture is a notoriously difficult concept to pin down. It is all too easy to assume that

differences observed between societies may be attributed to culture per se, with little

explanation of the reasons which may lie behind the differences, real or perceived.

Robbins notes that: ‘Most people are unaware of just how their culture will affect them.

Culture is like fish to water. It is there all the time but the fish are oblivious to it.’

It is

therefore necessary to be aware of one’s own culture in order to appreciate fully differ-

ences between different groups. The Johari Window technique – see Chapter 14 – can

be useful in identifying what may be known and not known regarding different cul-

tures. Attempt to use this framework in respect of your own and one other culture to

see its potential value. We should not assume that we are aware of all facets of our own

culture or that others see us in a realistic and accurate way.

Some writers who have sought to conduct comparative research into workplace differ-

ences have frequently used a matched pair method of comparison. This involves

selecting organisations for study which are similar in size, product or service, technolo-

gies employed and ownership pattern. It is claimed that any differences observed can

PART 1 MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

MODELS FOR UNDERSTANDING THE IMPACT OF CULTURE

The study of

culture

Matched pair

comparisons