Mullins L.J. Management and organisational behaviour, Seventh edition
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1 Career management programme
Citibank reports that intensive training placements in other countries are effective in
attracting and retaining the best people. The paper reports that companies which do
not have career management programmes can experience staff turnover rates in excess
of 15–20 per cent. Management programmes can be passive, e.g. include regular per-
formance reviews and setting performance goals, whereas active programmes consider
overseas postings, in-house training. The most successful programmes are those which
require employees to plan their own careers. The paper claims that Singaporean and
Hong Kong companies are not as flexible as organisations in Australia and New
Zealand in enabling individuals to design their own plans.
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2Traditional processes preferred at Nestlé
Nestlé re-examined career management systems and decided the following critical suc-
cess factors for their culture:
■ a transparent process owned by the line manager;
■
information about managers’ career expectations and the needs of the organisation;
■ measurement standards to determine whether it was working.
In setting up the process they concentrated on focused succession planning and intro-
duced career management groups. These groups review the needs of the organisation
and define the menu of experiences future managers will need. The system is now
more focused and measurable. They decided not to introduce self-development, men-
toring and career workshops, believing that the impact would be limited.
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3 Changing expectations
The starting point for SCO, a software company, was to change the expectations of the
employees away from traditional ideas about career progression, to ones that were
more realistic and possible. They decided on four parameters to realign individual goals
and the organisation direction:
■ building a learning culture through self-development and career management
driven by the individual;
■ improved feedback and communication;
■ effective performance management system;
■ increasing the ability of individuals to bring about change.
Practical interventions included:
■ self-development guide – of inventories and activities;
■ career management workshops;
■ project teams for specific business issues;
■ technical problem-solving workshops;
■ lunchtime training on key issues;
■ workshops on managing transition;
■ review of performance management systems.
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4 Mentoring and networks
Used now by many organisations, benefits include developing skills in reflection and
evaluation, self learning and development. Some organisations initiate formal mentor-
ing programmes with regular one-to-one advice and guidance with an older successful
role model. Aspiring managers can gain much-needed exposure and visibility.
Telementoring has also been suggested as a method of developing and supporting indi-
viduals when face-to-face meetings are not possible.
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Women’s networks can provide a communication channel enabling contact, sharing
information and reducing isolation. Although there are professed benefits to be gained
McDougall and Briley noted that in 1994 few organisations used mentoring or networking
as a means of developing women and where it was used it was on an informal basis.
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375
5 Development centres
Development centres which have as their aim to provide opportunities for reflection
and development have been widely commended for their benefits. The Peer Centre
designed at Roffey Park has its focus on learning: how to coach, how to observe, how to
give feedback constructively and how to plan development at an individual and group
level. They believe it sends strong signals to employees that they are valued, they are
being offered a coherent alternative to continual promotion.
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In short, organisations need to consider ways in which they can establish a broader de-
gendered view of careers, one that takes into account the ebbs and flow of individual
needs at different stages of their work cycle. A programme that allows individual to
reflect, re-tool and re-energise; one that allows for greater involvement in families or
communities outside work.
Changes in the way organisations are structured and managed may be good news for a
more feminine style of leadership. (See Chapter 10 on learning.) If the effectiveness of
organisations requires a style which is facilitative and participatory, this should augur
well for women who prefer the more social, less hierarchical modes of management.
Changing ideas on leadership
There is support for the view that flexible forms of organisations are encouraging a
new way of constructing management and leadership in less masculine ways than has
traditionally been the case. Themes such as identity, cohesion teams and social integra-
tion all suggest a non-masculine direction. ‘If more participatory, non-hierarchical
flexible and group-oriented style of management is viewed as increasingly appropriate
and this is formulated in feminine terms then women can be marketed as carriers of
suitable orientations for occupying positions as managers.’
133
A decade ago Judy Rosener identified an interactive leadership style in the female
managers that she studied. She found that these women ‘actively work to make their
interactions with subordinates positive for everyone involved’. Specifically she
described four characteristics of this style:
■ Encourage participation – by making people feel part of the organisation, instilling
group identity and facilitating inclusion and participation in all aspects of work.
■ Share power and information – willingly sharing power and information rather
than guarding and coveting it. They are not preoccupied with ‘the turf’.
■ Enhance the self-worth of others – by not asserting their own superiority and
giving credit, praising publicly and recognising individual efforts. Most disliked
practices that set them apart from others (separate parking/dining etc.).
■ Energise others – by being enthusiastic for the work and encouraging others to see
work as challenging and fun.
134
Research conducted by Alimo-Metcalfe
135
supports the view that the modern style of
leadership required for organisations is one that embraces vision, individual considera-
tion, strengthening participation and nurtures growth and self-esteem. Alimo-Metcalfe
was positive that women managers were bringing with them real qualities of ‘warmth,
consideration for others, nurturance of self-esteem and above all, integrity’. In a later
article leadership is described as not about being a wonder woman (or man) but as
someone who:
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PART 4 THE INDIVIDUAL
LEADERSHIP, MANAGEMENT AND WOMEN
A pull towards
a more
feminine style
■ values the individuality of their staff;
■ encourages individuals to challenge the status quo;
■ possesses integrity and humility.
She claims that myths of leadership are dangerous because they suggest that leadership
is rare, found mainly at the top of organisations and is about being superhuman.
136
This she claims distinguishes her study from those from the US which tend to focus on
‘distant leaders’. The characteristics of the distant leader may be different to those
valued in ‘nearby leaders – the immediate line manager’. Although vision, charisma,
courage are qualities that are ascribed to the distant leader subordinates seek qualities
in their nearby leader such as being sociable, open and considerate. These were rated
more highly in their research and it was found that women scored higher than men in
11 out of the 14 characteristics.
However, the interest in ‘New Leadership’ research and transformational leadership in
particular has focused on ‘heroes’ and the nature of charisma. Many studies have
focused on public figures, notably men. Goffee and Jones claim that inspirational leaders
share four unexpected qualities:
■ They selectively show their weaknesses.
■
They rely heavily on intuition to gauge the appropriate timing and course of their actions.
■ They manage employees with tough empathy.
■ They reveal their differences; they capitalise on what is unique about them. However,
Goffee and Jones suggest that gender differences can lead to stereotyping and to a
double bind situation. They suggest that women may opt to ‘play into’ their stereo-
type and make themselves invisible ‘by being more like the men’ or deliberately play
the role of nurturer or set themselves apart by campaigning for rights in the work-
place. Whichever route is chosen females are playing into a negative stereotype.
Goffee and Jones ask the question ‘Can female leaders be true to themselves?’
137
The extent to which women’s experiences and skills offer something different to
men is still in debate but there is a clear push in the literature concerning the signifi-
cance of skills and qualities associated with being feminine. These dimensions resonate
with the changing nature of organisations in the 21st century and support the notion
of emotional intelligence. Alvesson and Due Billing, working in Sweden and Denmark,
have summarised the differing and at times confusing approaches in the framework
shown in Figure 9.8. In addition to the arguments on gender similarity (or not), they
also consider the impact of differing organisational approaches. They argue that the
notion of feminine leadership may not be especially valid or useful. Workplaces, which
are organised without the stereotyping of gender, might evolve new and more effective
models of leadership.
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What should organisations do to encourage women leaders?
Alvesson and Due Billing suggest that there are three agendas which require attention:
■ Short agenda – To advocate ensuring women have same privileges as men: equal
pay, access etc.
■ Long agenda – To strengthen women’s self-confidence and facilitate the integration
of work and family.
■ Broad agenda – To emphasise women’s interests and female values with broader
concerns. The consideration of women-focused activities in relationship to men.
The social relations between men and women and the gendered nature of institu-
tions would be of central concern. How the organisation reaffirms gender positions
in its culture; its stories, rites and rituals.
CHAPTER 9 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
377
A push to
maintaining
status quo:
male as leader
In addition organisations could:
■ help to demystify leadership and identify the competencies within the organisation
to which it is to be applied;
■ develop the importance of feedback and reflection – evidence suggests that success-
ful leaders thrive on feedback and support. Provide structures to enable feedback
and reflection time – ‘time to think’. Kline advocates that organisations should
become thinking environments as everything we do depends for its quality on the
thinking we do first, and our thinking depends on the quality of our attention for
each other. A thinking environment says ‘you matter’.
139
Reviews and articles explaining the position and status of women typically conclude
with exhortations to organisations to introduce and promote schemes which would
positively help and support women. The logic of introducing such schemes is based on
good business sense in that women represent an untapped human resource. There has
been considerable media hype about the progress of women at work and yet this is not
revealed in the latest statistics. Improving the ‘lot’ of women can also provoke resent-
ment from men.
Perhaps the most positive approach to take is for an organisation to acknowledge
the changing working pattern of all employees and to consider the best working prac-
tices for managing a diverse workforce. This should not be done mechanically but by
analysis of the organisation and its workforce. Organisations need to analyse, con-
sciously debate and question their unwritten assumptions and expectations in order to
reveal prejudices inherent in the culture of their organisations. Analysis of the way in
which culture is expressed in all its trivial detail would lead to an understanding of per-
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PART 4 THE INDIVIDUAL
Ethical/political concern
(equality, workplace humanisation)
Equal opportunities
Low proportion of women
managers reflection of
inequalities that exist.
Alternative values
This position stresses the
differences and conflicts
between men and
women.
Meritocracy
Potential talents of
women need to be
recognised for the
organisation’s
effectiveness.
Special contribution
Women can make a
‘special contribution’
to management because
of their feminine
perspective.
Emphasis on
gender similarity
Emphasis on
gender difference
Concern for
organisational efficiency
Figure 9.8 Matrix indicating differing perspectives on gender
(Source: Adapted from ‘Approaches to the Understanding of Women and Leadership’ in Understanding Gender and Organisations by
Alvesson, M. and Due Billing, Y. Reproduced with permission from Sage Publications Ltd, 1997.)
POSITIVE APPROACHES
ceptions and attitudes. Until a full analysis is completed it remains doubtful if more
egalitarian practices will develop.
Employees should go through a three-stage process of auditing existing policies, set-
ting measurable goals and making a public commitment from top management to
achieving them. A number of agencies see work/life balance (discussed in Chapter 18) as
key to equality for women and men.
140
Equality Direct’s appeal is to the ‘bottom-line’:
Businesses prosper if they make the best use of their most valuable resource: the ability and
skills of their people. And these people, in turn, will flourish if they can strike a proper balance
between work and the rest of their lives.
141
Why do we need a work/life balance?
The EOC claims there ‘is now a mismatch between people’s caring and parenting
responsibilities and the demands of inflexible employment patterns’ (p. 1).
142
Family
patterns are more fluid and diverse requiring work environments to reflect people’s
changing needs. Most two-parent families are also two-earner families. There are more
lone parents, more than half who work.
143
The government has made a commitment to
enhancing choice and support for parents including enhancing access to good quality
child care and parenting services; tailoring financial support to families’ circumstances
and working in partnership with business to promote the benefits of flexible working. A
number of current government agencies are urging organisations to develop more flex-
ible working practices.
They argue that if employees are given greater control and choice over where, when
and how much time is in work, a more satisfied, valued, committed and less stressed
workforce will result. The notion is that everybody, regardless of age, race and gender,
will prefer to work to a rhythm of work that suits his or her lifestyle. The challenge of
managing caring responsibilities and paid employment are too often a source of stress
and anxiety. Evidence from research studies has shown the dysfunctional impact that
the ‘long hours’ culture prevalent in Britain has on employees’ home life.
144
This new focus on equality has moved from one that is focusing only on women’s
needs to one of inclusiveness. It is a compelling idea as it avoids the difficulties of hos-
tility and resentment potentially caused by the selective focus on women’s needs.
Rather than being a ‘women’s issue’ it suggests that gender should be ‘mainstreamed’;
it should be a core practice of the business. The EOC identify that mainstreaming
requires rethinking the traditional roles of men and women in society:
Simply, the gender mainstreaming approach means challenging our assumptions and stereo-
types about men and women, and their roles in society and the economy. It means making
evidence-based policy. This is simply good sense. Well-targeted policy which takes account of the
different ways men and women may organise their time, or relate to goods and services, means
better use of resources and better outcomes in terms of achieving policy objectives. In the
process social and economic inequalities will be challenged.
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CHAPTER 9 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
379
The push for flexibility
In a report commissioned by the CIPD entitled ‘Married to the job’ one in three partners of
people who work more than 48 hours in a typical week said the long hours have an entirely
negative effect on their personal relationship and on the relationship with chidren. The long-
hours workers themselves feel they have struck the wrong work/life balance and feel guilty
that they are failing to pull their weight on the domestic front. Working long hours can have
a negative effect on job performance and cause accidents. CIPD reports 41 per cent of man-
agers believe that the quality of their working life has deteriorated over the past three years.
Those working in small firms are the most confident about the quality of their life.
145
Is work more attractive than home?
Research conducted in the US by Hochschild noted that attractive organisations can be
‘seductive’. In her study she observed that it was possible to achieve fulfilment, satisfac-
tion, care and confirmation at work, while home shared similarities to a ‘Taylorised’
environment. In such circumstance work becomes home, and home becomes work. This,
she claims offers one explanation why parents choose not to take up the family-friendly
(FF) schemes offered in the company as they actually prefer to be in work.
147
Swedish experience suggests that women will initially take more advantage than men of
FF policies and that many men will continue to behave as if married to a full-time house-
wife. However, some recent research suggests that this at last is beginning to change and
that a new model of a more democratic family may be evolving in Sweden.
148
Approaches to gender equality: a comparison
A study conducted in Australia explored the link between different EO policies and the
number of women in management positions. This identified four types of approaches:
■ Classical disparity – equal treatment practised but gendered roles assumed;
■ Anti-discrimination – equal outcomes encouraged;
■ Affirmative action – assistance for disadvantaged groups and specific actions taken
(women’s groups/networks/mentoring programme for women, formal mechanisms
exist with women);
■ Gender diversity – compensate for disadvantages through a change in culture and
organisational systems – flexible systems encouraged – but specific treatment for one
group discouraged, for example, job sharing, part-time work.
The study found that those organisations that took an affirmative action approach
had significantly higher numbers of women in all management tiers. Organisations
classified as gender diverse did not see such significant increases. French states, ‘One
possible explanation as to why this might be involves the fact that broad application of
diversity strategies results in limited practical outcomes. That is, in trying to do every-
thing, nothing substantive is achieved. Another explanation is that the diversity
approach to substantive equity may take up to 25 years because of the slow pace of cul-
tural and structural change without the use of direct affirmative action strategies.’
149
There still seems to be some way to go before flexible working practices become part
of our ‘normal way of life’. In reality it would seem that the political and cultural nature
of the organisation is a major factor in choosing working practices. It appears that there
is a stigma attached to employees who choose to work part-time and people fear that if
they choose to work at home they may miss out on potential promotion opportunities.
The following obstacles stand in the way of a healthy work/life balance:
■ Family-friendly schemes are still perceived as concessions to women.
■ Men’s domestic absenteeism.
■ Presenteeism (being seen at work) as a phenomenon linked to career success.
Only time will tell whether the exhortations will work. Will there be stigma
attached to employees who choose to work part-time? Will people who choose to work
at home miss out on potential promotion opportunities? Are there preferred career
tracks, which exclude routes other than the traditional linear paths? So, even if the
opportunities are open to all, in reality the political and cultural nature of the organi-
sation prevents career-hungry individuals from choosing such options. (Please see
Chapter 22 for more detail on the working of cultural processes in organisations.)
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PART 4 THE INDIVIDUAL
■ The individual member is the first point of study and analysis in organisational
behaviour. One of the essential requirements of organisations is the development and
encouragement of individuality within a work atmosphere in which common goals and
aims are achieved. Emphasising individual differences and valuing diversity is a recent
catalyst for helping the equality agenda in business. One of the distinguishing factors of
successful managers in any organisation is their ability to bring out the best in the
people that work with and report to them. Managing relationships well depends on an
understanding and awareness of the staff and of their talents, abilities, interests and
motives. It is also dependent upon effective social skills and emotional intelligence.
■ Encouraging and developing each member at work is essential for individual and
organisational health and is a major task of management. Recognising and improving
individual talent and potential is critical to ensure that the many roles and functions
of an organisation are achieved effectively. However, differences between individuals
can also be the source of problems and conflict. Personality clashes may occur; differ-
ences of attitudes and values may lead to polarisation and discrimination.
■ Improved self-awareness and accelerated development are essential to the educa-
tion of managers. Although psychologists do not agree in terms of the relative
importance of certain factors, there is much to be gained from both nomothetic and
idiographic approaches. Personality assessment techniques have been found to be
helpful in terms of self-knowledge and discovery as well as adding to the rapidly
enlarging repertoire of assessment centres. In mentoring an individual’s development,
an understanding of the causes of behaviour and past experiences can be helpful in
terms of future planning.
■ A major influencing factor affecting work performance is the ability of the
employee. Ensuring that the right people are selected for work and are able to use their
CHAPTER 9 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
CRITICAL REFLECTIONS
‘OK, so it is important to understand that managing is all about people, and every person is an
individual in his or her own right. But manytheories and models about behaviour appear to
apply to people in general. Surely we should be more concerned with a study of differences
among individuals rather than similarities among people?’
What are your own views?
Among the factors that exert pressures on our personality formation are the culture in which we
are raised, our early conditioning, the norms among our family, friends, and social groups, and
other influences that we experience. The environment to which we are exposed plays a substan-
tial role in shaping our personalities.
Robbins, S. P. Organizational Behavior, Ninth edition, Prentice Hall International (2001), p. 93.
How would you describe the environmental factors which have helped shape your per-
sonality and how is this manifested in the work situation?
‘Freud’s personality theories have no practical use or value to the organisation.’
Debate.
SYNOPSIS
381
intelligence effectively is a critical personnel process, now helped by the appropriate
use of psychological tests. However, tests are not a panacea and can, if inappropriately
used, lead to a sense of false security.
■ Assessment of attitudes is vital in selecting potential employees and future man-
agers, and yet informal measures of observation are frequently used. Given the
difficulties of attitude measurement and doubts associated with predicting behaviour,
such assessment is fraught with problems. Managers may hold incorrect assumptions
and beliefs about their colleagues. Without a gauge to measure these attitudes, ineffec-
tive management decisions may be made. Attitudes can take on a permanency which is
maintained by the culture of the organisation and thus be very resistant to change.
Moreover, the power of attitudes should be recognised particularly with regard to influ-
encing newer members of the organisation and their development.
■ Understanding the ways in which working practices may have an unintended
adverse impact on women is a critical area of research to be conducted by organisa-
tions. Until practices are free of gender bias it is unlikely that women will have an
equal role in organisations. The differing approaches taken by psychologists offer com-
plementary perspectives from which to analyse individual behaviour. Practical
solutions to flexible work may produce mutual benefits for employees and employers,
but evaluation of these practices is a necessary outcome.
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PART 4 THE INDIVIDUAL
1 Identify the major ways in which individual differences are demonstrated at work. Discuss
strengths and limitations to the employer and employee of:
a people of the same age and/or race working together;
b people working different hours (flexi-time, part-time).
2 You are required to interview one person from your work or study group to produce an
assessment of their personality. What questions will you ask and how accurate do you
feel your assessment will be? What are some of the problems of using this method?
3 What are psychometric tests and when should they not be used?
4 Why are attitudes difficult to measure and change? How would you promote awareness
of the needs of students (or work colleagues) with disabilities? What would you do? What
reactions might you encounter?
5 Design a simple questionnaire to administer to your work/college colleagues on attitudes
towards reducing stress at work.
6 Hold a debate: ‘This house believes that low intelligence cannot be improved.’ Draw up
evidence for and against this statement. At the end of the debate, reflect on the strength
of emotional responses and consider the political arguments that have been addressed.
7 Analyse the evidence which suggests that men’s and women’s attitudes and motivations
to work are different.
8 List recommendations you would make to young Asian women about to embark on a
management career. Consider the differences you would make if you were to advise
young white men. Compare your list with others in the group.
9 ’Work-life balance is all about good management practice and sound business sense’. Is
it? Critically evaluate this statement.
10 Men and women need to work in partnership to establish equality in the workplace.
Critically discuss.
REVIEW AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Assignment 1
CHAPTER 9 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Role play the following situations:
SITUATION 1
Mumtaz has just completed her fast-track graduate programme and is now looking forward to
a Development Centre which will determine the next promotion step. She is anticipating an
international assignment.
She is already gaining a reputation for hard work and creative ideas and exudes confidence.
She is acutely aware that she has been the only female Asian on the programme. The organi-
sation’s dominant culture is white and male. A letter arrives from the HR Department with the
news that the Development Centre falls in the middle of Ramadan, a time when she needs to
fast and partake in regular prayer. She knows that the socialising aspects of the Development
Centres are important and that a formal lunch is prepared for each of the three days.
She is unsure whether she should inform her line manager of her anxieties, but she decides to
arrange a meeting.
■ Role-play the meeting in triads: playing the part of Mumtaz, the manager and the observer.
■ Take turns playing different roles, with different outcomes.
■ Discuss the feelings, attitudes and behaviours that were being portrayed.
SITUATION 2
Jordan is a highly successful salesman who works for an international IT organisation. As part
of the rewards package for sales staff, exotic prizes are offered to the best sales teams.
Jordan is part of the North West team, which has exceeded its targets over the last quarter.
The team is currently in the lead to win a trip on the Orient Express and a weekend in Venice.
The announcement is made and the team has won the prize. There is great joy and celebra-
tion in the office, especially as each team member can take their partner on the trip. Jordan is
gay but has not ‘come out’ at work. He wants to include his partner, but is uncertain of the
reaction of his colleagues. At the pub that evening he broaches the subject to two of his work
colleagues …
■ Role play the meeting with one observer.
■ Take turns playing different roles, with different outcomes.
■ Discuss the feelings, attitudes and behaviours that were being portrayed.
ASSIGNMENT
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PART 4 THE INDIVIDUAL
OBJECTIVES
Completing this exercise should help you to enhance the following skills:
Explore a range of issues concerned with individual differences.
Reflect on the nature of motivation and satisfaction of your needs.
Assess the strengths and weaknesses of using the repertory grid technique.
EXERCISE
Using Kelly’s repertory grid technique and Wilson’s framework (Table 9.6), you are required
to complete your own personal construct grid.
1Produce the elements and answer the following:
■ the job I do now; ■ the job I used to do (where appropriate);
■ an ideal job; ■ a job I would enjoy;
■ a job I would not enjoy; and ■ a job I would hate.
2 Develop the constructs
Write your answer at the top of each column. Now, select two elements (for example, 1
and 2) and compare with a third (for example, 6). State the way in which the two elements
are alike, and different from the third. Write your answer in the rows. These are your con-
structs. For example, I am now a lecturer (element 1) and I used to be a personnel officer
(element 2), and a job I would hate would be a factory operative (element 6). The ways in
which I see elements 1 and 2 as alike, and different from, 6 are in the intellectual demands
of the jobs. Select different triads until you have exhausted all possible constructs.
3 Score the constructs
Examine each construct in relation to the elements (jobs) you have described. Score
between 7 (high) and 1 (low).
4 Now compare:
–Your pattern of scores for element 1 and element 3. What does this tell you about your
current career and motivation?
–Your pattern of scores with the grid completed by an engineering craftsman as shown in
the section in the text on personality. (See Table 9.7.)
–Your constructs and elements with other colleagues.
DISCUSSION
■ How do you see the importance of constructs, goals and priorities in people’s lives?
■ What do you see as the meaning of work to the individual – central or peripheral goal?
■ Explain ways in which organisations may satisfy individual needs at work.
PERSONAL AWARENESS AND SKILLS EXERCISE
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