Muller Eric L. American Inquisition: The Hunt for Japanese American Disloyalty in World War II

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186 : index

mass exclusion in, 91; Democrats

gain House seats in 1944 in, 96. See

also Tule Lake Segregation Center

Carter, John Franklin, 15, 16

Chandler, Albert B. (‘‘Happy’’), 26, 156

(n. 20), 159 (n. 20)

Children, exemption from individual

exclusion process of, 105

‘‘Chinese menu’’ approach, 52, 65

Christianity: conversion of Japanese

Americans to, 10; in Dedrick’s point

system, 47; in Dedrick’s color-

coding system, 50; in War Reloca-

tion Authority point system, 76, 77

Citizenship: and Nisei, 9, 11; renuncia-

tion of American, 102, 105, 125, 130.

See also Japanese American Joint

Board (JAJB); Provost Marshal Gen-

eral’s O≈ce (PMGO); War Reloca-

tion Authority (WRA); Western

Defense Command (WDC)

Loyalty oaths, 135, 137

Loyalty question. See Question 28

Loyalty questionnaires of 1943: midlevel

government o≈cials evaluate, 1–2;

purposes of, 5–6; background of,

31–33; registration process and, 35;

contents of, 35–36; and failure of

registration program, 36–38; ‘‘high

mortality of loyalty’’ due to, 38; and

Japanese-American Branch, 41; in

Dedrick’s color-coding system, 45

(ill.), 49; Ochikubo’s response to,

109, 119, 121; works on Japanese

American reaction to, 149 (n. 3). See

also Question 27; Question 28

Machine Records (punch-card) system,

103–4, 106, 171 (n. 47)

Magazines: in Dedrick’s loyalty point

system, 48; read by Nisei, 62, 63, 64

index : 191

Manzanar Relocation Center, 26, 31, 38

Marshall, George C.: on mass exclusion

as no longer military necessity, 89–

90, 111, 114; Bonesteel’s memoran-

dum on mass exclusion for, 94–95,

124; Pratt’s memorandum on

Ochikubo case to, 123, 131

Martial arts, 12, 47, 48

Martial law, 131

Masaoka, Mike, 14

Mass exclusion: debate over ending, 5,

84–98; ending of, 6, 84, 96; Ochikubo

case challenges, 7, 107, 110, 115–16;

initiation of, 17, 22, 84; and assem-

bly centers, 21, 155 (n. 1); as military

necessity, 89–90, 92, 94–95, 111–12,

124; Roosevelt delays ending, 90–91,

111; Bonesteel on ending, 92–96, 111,

124; transition to individual exclu-

sion, 96–98

McCarthy, Joseph, 136

McCloy, John J.: military service for

Nisei supported by, 24, 32; assistant

to on ‘‘high mortality of loyalty’’

from registration program, 38; on

Japanese American Joint Board’s

work, 39, 46; on FBI withdrawal

from Japanese American Joint Board,

40–41; on language for recommend-

ing against indeﬁnite leave, 53;

Emmons’s message rejecting mass

exclusion to, 86; Myer presses on to

end mass exclusion, 86–87; urges

program to end mass exclusion, 87–

88; Fortas presses on to end mass

exclusion, 89; and Marshall’s sup-

port of ending mass exclusion, 89–

90; meets with Roosevelt about end-

ing mass exclusion, 91; letter to

Bonesteel on ending mass exclusion,

91–92; and Bonesteel’s opposition to

mass exclusion, 92–93, 95–96; on

lawsuit against Bonesteel, 93; and

Emmons on Nielsen’s loyalty evalua-

tion system, 99; and Ochikubo case,

113, 115, 116; on Ochikubo, 113

Military Intelligence Service (MIS), 22–23

Military service for Nisei: in Military

Intelligence Service, 22–23; War

Relocation Authority support for,

23–24, 32–33; De Witt’s opposition

to, 24, 32–33; military support for,

24, 32–33; in segregated Nisei bat-

talion, 33; Question 27 of loyalty

questionnaire of 1943 on, 35; and

failure of recruitment in 1943, 36;

and Okamoto’s draft resistance

movement, 80–81; and Ochikubo,

109; in Dedrick’s color-coding sys-

tem, 161 (n. 37)

Military zones, creation of, 17

Minidoka Relocation Center, 36

Mitsuoka, Noboru, 70–71

Miyamoto, S. Frank, 10

Munson, Curtis B., 15, 16

Muslims, prejudice against, 146–47

Myer, Dillon S.: on segregation of the

disloyal, 27, 157 (n. 31); on real

cause of bad evacuee morale, 28, 79;

on military service for Nisei, 32; on

language for recommending against

indeﬁnite leave, 53; on clearing

‘‘white’’ cases for war plant work,

54, 55; and revoking indeﬁnite leave,

56; photograph with Nisei worker,

58 (ill.); War Department criticized

by, 60; on expatriation requests, 74;

on loyalty assessment to obtain

white acceptance of relocation, 79;

end of mass exclusion urged by, 84–

85, 86–87; on review board for seg-

regees, 145; Drinnon’s work on, 150

(n. 5); on furloughs for farm labor,

156 (n. 17)

192 : index

Nativism, 19, 117

Nielsen, Victor W., 99

Nikkei: deﬁned, 9. See also Japanese

Americans (Nikkei)

Nisei: population in 1941, 9; as birth-

right American citizens, 9, 11; assim-

ilation of, 9–14; English spoken by,

10; Japanese American Citizens

League of, 10; dual citizenship of,

11–12, 99, 105, 151 (n. 11), 152

(n. 12); in martial arts programs, 12;

in Japanese schools, 12, 18, 43, 44,

47, 48, 49, 50; and Japanese nation-

alism, 13; travel to Japan by, 13–14;

education in Japan for, 13–14, 153

(n. 24); Carter-Munson study of loy-

alty of, 15–16; o≈cials urging of to

engage in war e√ort, 16; Western

Defense Command assumes dis-

loyalty of, 16–18; searches of homes

of, 17 (ill.); as only American citizens

presumed disloyal, 20; force of into

assembly centers, 21; pressures on

presumption of disloyalty of, 21–30;

enemy alien draft status for, 22; seg-

regation of the disloyal among con-

sidered, 26, 27; loyalty as criterion

for freedom or conﬁnement of, 28–

30; DSS-304A form for male, 35;

and Question 28 of loyalty question-

naire of 1943, 36, 38; repatriation

requests of in 1943, 36–37; Japanese

American Joint Board approach to

loyalty of, 39–65; Dedrick’s point

system stacked against, 48–49; in

war plant work, 57–59, 138, 163

(n.78); and human consequences of

Japanese American Joint Board

errors, 61–65, 139; Provost Marshal

General’s O≈ce’s approach to loy-

alty of, 67–72, 138; removal of from

war plant work, 69–72; War Reloca-

tion Authority’s approach to loyalty

of, 73–82, 138, 139; Western Defense

Command’s approach to loyalty of,

83–106, 138; sterling record of those

released, 138; scholarship on prewar

life of, 151 (n. 6). See also Kibei; Mili-

tary service for Nisei

Nishimoto, Richard, 141

Nokai, 68

Ochikubo, George, 107–10; registration

form of, 37 (ill.); summary form of

loyalty case of, 45; at Topaz Relocation

Center, 107, 109–10, 119, 121; volun-

teers for army, 109; photograph with

his lawyer, 111 (ill.); Bonesteel refuses

to allow return of, 113, 115, 122; indi-

vidual exclusion hearing of, 116–22;

military intelligence data collected on,

120 (ill.); after the war, 133. See also

Ochikubo v. Bonesteel (1944)

Ochikubo v. Bonesteel (1944): mass exclu-

sion challenged in, 7, 107, 110, 115–

16; reaction of Bonesteel to, 93; and

government delays, 111–16; moved to

federal court, 112; mooting of con-

sidered by government, 112–14;

espionage and sabotage defense

considered by government in, 113,

114, 115, 140; social resistance

defense considered by government

in, 113, 114–15; preliminary injunc-

tion sought in, 116, 122–23; trial of,

122–33; federal court’s authority as

issue in, 123–24, 131–32; main

issues to be litigated in, 124; mis-

leading testimony by military at trial

of, 127–30, 140–41, 174 (n. 37); fed-

eral court rejects, 131, 169 (n. 22);

Pratt insists on appeal of, 132–33,

175 (n. 43); as about making law, 133

O≈ce of Naval Intelligence (ONI): pre-

index : 193

war surveillance of Issei by, 9; Ringle

report on Nikkei loyalty for, 15–16;

on Japanese American Joint Board,

34, 40; on Ito case, 65; Western

Defense Command loyalty system

requires data from, 104

Okamoto, Kiyoshi, 80–81

ONI. See O≈ce of Naval Intelligence

Oregon, military zone in, 17

Paciﬁc Coast. See West (Paciﬁc) Coast

Paternal jus sanguinis, 11

PMGO. See Provost Marshal General’s

O≈ce

Point system, 46–49

Poston Relocation Center: protests at,

26, 31, 38; administrators at disagree

on meaning of disloyalty, 29; Nishi-

moto at, 141

Powell (Wyoming), 25

Pratt, Henry: becomes Western Defense

Command commander, 97; on

exclusion orders as unreviewable,

123, 131–32; Ochikubo exclusion

order rea≈rmed by, 130, 173 (n. 24);

in Ochikubo v. Bonesteel ruling, 131;

Ochikubo v. Bonesteel appealed by, 132–

33, 175 (n. 43)

Prejudice, anti-Japanese, 14, 95. See also

Race

Protest. See Demonstrations

Provost Marshal General’s O≈ce

(PMGO), 67–72; in loyalty bureau-

cracy, 3; and conﬂict with other

agencies, 3; coherent deﬁnition of

loyalty lacking in, 3; on Japanese

American Joint Board, 3, 6, 34, 40;

determining war plant work eligi-

bility as responsibility of, 6, 40, 53,

57, 67–72; approach to Nisei loyalty,

6, 67–72, 138, 165 (n. 90); and Ben-

detsen on Nisei disloyalty, 33, 154

(n. 12); on language for recommend-

ing against indeﬁnite leave, 53; sepa-

ration from War Relocation Author-

ity, 57–60; on publicizing Nisei war

plant workers, 58, 59; and Industrial

Employment Review Board, 69–70,

166 (n. 10), 175 (n. 9); War Reloca-

tion Authority’s approach to loyalty

compared with that of, 73, 77–78;

moves into background of loyalty

adjudication, 83; and Bonesteel’s

request for ﬁles on Japanese Ameri-

cans from, 95, 96; on Western

Defense Command’s individual

exclusion system, 105; as having lit-

tle experience of Japanese Ameri-

cans, 138–39; biases a√ect loyalty

adjudication by, 140; on loyalty

versus racial pride, 142; behavior

prediction as task of, 143. See also

Japanese-American Branch

Question 27 (loyalty questionnaire of

1943), 35; Nisei reaction to, 35–36;

Nisei answers to, 63, 64, 71; Ochi-

kubo’s answer to, 109

Question 28 (loyalty questionnaire of

1943), 35; Issei reaction to, 35, 36,

158 (n. 10); Nisei reaction to, 36;

Nisei answers to, 38, 62, 63, 64, 70,

71; in Dedrick’s color-coding sys-

tem, 50; segregation associated with

‘‘no’’ answer to, 56; in Provost Mar-

shal General’s O≈ce’s approach

to loyalty, 73; in War Relocation

Authority’s approach to loyalty, 73–

75, 79; in Western Defense Com-

mand’s individual exclusion system,

105, 125, 130; Ochikubo’s answer to,

109; response to evacuation and

answer to, 145; source of phrasing

of, 159 (n. 13)

194 : index

Race: Japanese American internment as

system of racial oppression, 2; in

assumptions of Nikkei disloyalty, 5,

7, 16, 17–20, 138, 154 (n. 12); pride

in, taught in Japanese language

schools, 12, 43; loyalty investigators’

racism, 42–44; Dedrick’s racism, 46;

in Hazzard’s view of Japanese, 117–

18; loyalty versus pride in, 141–42; as

basis for predicting behavior, 143–

Rafu Shimpo (newspaper), 49, 77, 161

(n. 27)

Red scare, second, 1, 4, 136–37

Registration questionnaires. See Loyalty

questionnaires of 1943

Religion: Shinto, 43, 47, 76. See also

Buddhism; Christianity

Relocation centers: characteristics of

determined by state o≈cials, 2; run

by War Relocation Authority, 3, 21;

establishment of, 21–22; Amache

Relocation Center, 23 (ill.), 34 (ill.);

Manzanar Relocation Center, 26, 31,

38; demonstrations and protests at,

26, 31, 38, 88; segregation of ‘‘trou-

blemakers’’ at, 27; military service

for Nisei calls into question, 32–33;

resistance to loyalty questionnaire of

1943 at, 36; Minidoka Relocation

Center, 36; ‘‘relocation’’ as euphe-

mism, 149 (n. 2). See also Gila River

Relocation Center; Heart Mountain

Relocation Center; Poston Reloca-

tion Center; Topaz Relocation Cen-

ter; Tule Lake Segregation Center

Relocation o≈ces, 32

Repatriation and expatriation requests:

registration process accompanied by,

36–37; in Dedrick’s point system,

48; in Dedrick’s color-coding sys-

tem, 50; in Provost Marshal Gen-

eral’s O≈ce’s approach to loyalty,

73; in War Relocation Authority’s

approach to loyalty, 74, 75; in Niel-

sen’s loyalty evaluation system, 99;

in Western Defense Command’s

individual exclusion system, 105,

125, 130

Rhett, John T., 117

Ringle, Kenneth D., 11 (ill.), 15–16, 26

Robertson, Guy, 81

Robinson, Greg, 85

Roosevelt, Franklin D.: as having little

to do with internment’s deﬁning fea-

tures, 2; and intelligence on loyalty

of Japanese Americans, 5; Japanese

American internment and election of

in 1944, 6; Carter-Munson study of

Nikkei loyalty ordered by, 15; Execu-

tive Order 9066 of, 17, 84, 114, 131;

letter endorses ending mass exclu-

sion, 85, 87; delays ending mass

exclusion, 90–91, 111; on distribut-

ing Japanese Americans throughout

United States, 90–91, 93–94; McCloy

meets with, 91; meeting with Bone-

steel about mass exclusion, 93–94;

mass exclusion ended by, 96; reelec-

tion in 1944, 96; negative view of Jap-

anese Americans, 154 (n. 6)

Rowley, Scott, 29, 142

Sabotage and espionage: no Japanese

American convicted of, 4, 61, 150

(n. 10); Bonesteel on decreased risk

of, 94, 124; as Ochikubo v. Bonesteel

defense, 113, 114, 115, 140; theme of

in Wilbur’s testimony at Ochikubo v.

Bonesteel trial, 125–27

Salt Lake City Conference (1942), 21, 24

Salyer, Lucy, 175 (n. 8)

Sawada, George Masaaki, 166 (n. 10)

Schweitzer, Harold W., 127–30

index : 195

Seasonal leave, 31

Seattle, 10

Second Red scare, 1, 4, 136–37

Sedition Act (1798), 135

Sedition Act (1918), 136

Segregation of the disloyal: War Reloca-

tion Authority loyalty assessment

related to, 6, 78, 79; War Relocation

Authority and military consider, 26–

27; opposition to registration results

in, 38; as means to an end, 79; for

camp control, 80; Gila River Reloca-

tion Center loyalty review process

for, 81–82; completion of program

of, 84, 87; Stimson on, 85; Senate

resolution calls for, 85; and isolation

camps, 157 (n. 30). See also Tule Lake

Segregation Center

Senate Military A√airs Subcommittee,

26, 156 (n. 20)

Senate Permanent Subcommittee on

Investigations, 136

September 11, 2001, attacks, 4, 146

Shikegawa, Kiyoshi, 173 (n. 31)

Shinto, 43, 47, 76

Shiramizu, Ruth Shizuko, 110, 113, 116,

172 (n. 18)

Short-term leave, 31

Southern Claims Commission, 136,

137

Spicer, Edward, 141

Stimson, Henry: on Nisei disloyalty, 28,

154 (n. 12); on ending mass exclu-

sion, 84–85, 89, 90; on individual

exclusion, 104

Strikes, 26, 31

Sugar beet producers, 22

Thomas, Dorothy Swaine, 141

Thurber, Robert, 55–56

Tillman, Frederick G., 40

Topaz Relocation Center: Japanese fam-

ily leaves, 78 (ill.); Ochikubo at, 107,

109–10, 119, 121

‘‘Total information awareness’’ pro-

gram, 103

Travel to Japan, 13–14; Army Service

Commands on, 43; in Dedrick’s

point system, 47, 49; in Dedrick’s

color-coding system, 50, 51; in War

Relocation Authority’s point system,

76; in Western Defense Command’s

individual exclusion system, 99, 105

Truman, Harry, 136–37, 145

Tule Lake Segregation Center, 27, 38,

55–56, 78, 80, 159 (n. 21); resistance

to loyalty questionnaire of 1943 at,

36; Okamoto sent to, 80–81; violent

protests at, 88, 109; review board for

segregees at, 145

Utah: relocation center in, 22; isolation

camp in, 157 (n. 30). See also Topaz

Relocation Center

Ventura, Mary Asaba, 24

Voter registration, 46, 49

Wada, Ikuro, 58 (ill.)

Wakayama, Ernest and Toki, 24, 156

(n. 11)

Walk, Maurice, 24–25, 29–30

War Department: Japanese American

Joint Board created by, 34; cooper-

ates with War Relocation Authority

on loyalty questionnaires, 34, 39; on

Japanese American Joint Board, 34,

40; Myer criticizes, 60; in plan for

individual exclusion, 97. See also Mar-

shall, George C.; McCloy, John J.;

O≈ce of Naval Intelligence (ONI);

Provost Marshal General’s O≈ce

(PMGO); Stimson, Henry; Western

Defense Command (WDC)