Page451
togobeyondtheirtribalterritories:studentsandtraderstravelledtoTaxilainthe
kingdomofGandharainthenorthwest,soldiersmountedonelephants
apparentlyfoughtintheAchaemenidarmyagainsttheGreeks.
AstheAryansbegantodisperse,severalmajordevelopmentstookplace.A
morescientificattitudebecameevidentintheirculture,andSanskrittextswere
composedonlaw,astronomy,astrology,andespeciallylinguisticsubjectssuch
asetymology,metrics,prosody,andgrammar.Atthesametime,theAryan
languagestartedtofragmentintodialectalorregionalformsknownasPrakrits.
Panini’swellknowngrammarisregardedbysomeasaresponsetotheAryan
diaspora,anattempttofixtheformofSanskritbeforeitdisintegratedinto
mutuallyunintelligibledialects.Thedisintegrationprocesswasreinforcedbythe
greatreligiousreformersofthesixthcenturyBC,especiallytheBuddhaand
Mahavira(founderofJainism),whopropagatedvernacularlanguagesinorder
tomaketheirteachingsaccessibletothemasses.Panini’sgrammarmay
thereforealsorepresentpartoftheorthodoxreligiousbacklashagainstthese
antiVedicmovements.
Kautilya,theministerofthefourthcenturyBCIndianemperorCandragupta
Maurya,wroteatreatiseonstatecraft(oftencomparedtotheworkofthe
sixteenthcenturyItalian,Machiavelli)whichgivesussomeindicationofthe
statusthatatranslatormighthavehadduringthisperiod.Althoughtheterm
‘translator’isnotused,Kautilyamentions‘scribes’towardstheendofalong
listofoccupationsandsalaries:theking’schiefpriest,otherhighpriests,the
primeminister,militarycommander,andmembersoftheroyalfamily(48,000
panas);chiefsofpolice,harem,armoury,prison,revenue,andtreasury(24,000
panas);lesserroyals,thechiefofindustry,counsellors(12,000panas);guild
masters,regimentalheads,chariotcommanders,physicians,fortunetellers,
bards,professorsandspies(500–8,000panas);infantrymen,scribes,and
accountants(500panas).Intheverylastrankarecraftsmen,servants,medical
assistantsandcowherds(withnotionalfiguresforslaves,elephants,horses,and
oxen).
InthefourthcenturyBC,contactswiththesubcontinentareexternallyattested:
weknowthatAlexandertheGreatofMacedonreachedtheIndusin326BC
andthattheGreekchroniclerMegastheneswastheambassadorofSeleucus,
Alexander’ssuccessor,attheMauryancourt.Amongtheearliestrecorded
translationsareprobablythenamesofplacesandrulers.Thecapitalof
GandharawasknownasTakshashilatotheIndiansandTaxilatotheGreeks.
TheGreekhistorianPlutarchusestheGreekversion,Sandracottos,forthe
nameoftheIndianemperorCandragupta.
WiththearrivalinIndiaofGreeksfromBactria,weseecoinsissuedwithGreek
legendsononefaceandtheIndianBrahmiscriptontheother.Greekideason
astrology,medicine,anddramaarealsoperceivedinIndianliteratureofthe
period.TheIndoGreekkingsandtheBactriankingsoftheKushanatribewho
ruledoverpartsofIndiaoftentookimperialtitlesthatseemtobeborrowed
fromthePersians,suchasmaharajatirajaor‘kingofkings’(cf.shahin
shah),orfromtheChinese,forexampledaivaputraor‘sonofheaven’.The
KushanakingKanishka(c.AD78–101)wasagreatpatronofBuddhism,and
Buddhistartflourished,especiallyinGandhara.Kanishkaalsoacceleratedthe
spreadofBuddhismintoCentralAsiaandChina.
EarlyBuddhism
UnliketheVedicreligion,Buddhismwasanovertlyproselytizingreligionfrom
theoutset.Buddhahimselfurgedhisdisciplestopropagatehisteachings.Inthe
middleofthethirdcenturyBC,theIndianemperorAsoka,aftersome
particularlybloodycampaigns,followedthegeneraltrendawayfromVedic
sacrificesandtowardsanideologyofnoninjuryanduniversalcompassion
(particularlystressedbyBuddhism)anderectednumerouspillarswith
inscriptionsthatrecordhisedictsinlocallanguages,probablyinimitationofthe
PersianemperorDariusI.Thismusthaverequiredsometranslationtype
activitiesonthepartofthescribes.VariousscriptsareusedonAsoka’spillars,
andtheynameSyrian,EgyptianandMacedoniankings.
Fromabout250BConwards,Buddhistmissionsweresentsouthandwest,
andwithnotablesuccesstoSriLanka.TheBuddhistcanon(inPali,oneofthe
Prakrits)wasprobablywritteninSriLankainthefirstcenturyBC,about500
yearsafterBuddha’sdeath.However,aswellas