Lefebvre A.H., Ballal D.R. Gas Turbine Combustion: Alternative Fuels and Emissions
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430 Gas Turbine Combustion: Alternative Fuels and Emissions, Third Edition
30
20
10
NO
X
(measured), g/kg
0
010
NO
X
(predicted), g/kg
20
P
3
= 251–1374 kPa
T
3
= 413–787 K
m
A
= 1.7–7.4 kg/s
30
Figure 9.41
Comparison of measured and predicted values of NO
x
for a GE J79-17A combustor.
30
20
NO
X
(measured), g/kg
10
0
0
10 20
NO
X
(predicted), g/kg
P
3
= 386–1266 kPa
T
3
= 464–850 K
m
.
A
= 8.5–20.5 kg/s
30
Figure 9.42
Comparison of measured and predicted values of NO
x
for a GE F101 combustor.
Emissions 431
9.11.1.2 Lewis [105]
NO
x
= 3.32 × 10
−6
exp(0.008T
c
)P
0.5
ppmv. (9.9)
This equation is intended to show the amount of NO
x
formed in lean, homo-
geneous combustion. It suggests that NO
x
formation depends only on the
postcombustion temperature and pressure and is completely independent of
the residence time of the gases in the combustor. According to Lewis [105],
this is because the relevant time is not the residence time of the combustion
products, but rather the relaxation time of the molecules involved, primarily
the nitrogen molecule, and thus, is the same in all combustion systems using
air. However, expressions for NO
x
that take no account whatsoever of resi-
dence time can often provide a good prediction of experimental data because
the residence time of all aero gas turbine combustors tends to be roughly the
same at around a few milliseconds. It is only when expressions derived for
industrial gas turbine combustors are applied to aero combustors, or vice-
versa, that the lack of a term for residence time becomes important.
9.11.1.3 Rokke et al. [106]
NO
x
= 18.1P
1.42
m˙
A
0.3
q
0.72
ppmv. (9.10)
This equation was found to very satisfactorily correlate measurements
of NO
x
emissions from ve different natural gas-red industrial machines
operating in the power range from 1.5 to 34 MW. Although combustion tem-
perature is conspicuous by its absence in Equation 9.10, its inuence on NO
x
emissions is acknowledged by the inclusion of a fuel/air ratio term.
9.11.1.4 Rizk and Mongia [107]
NO
x
= 15.10
14
(t − 0.5t
e
)
0.5
exp −(71,100/T
st
)P
−0.05
(ΔP/P)
−0.5
g/kg fuel. (9.11)
An interesting feature of this equation is that it includes a term, t
e
, to
account for the inuence of fuel evaporation on NO
x
emissions. According to
Equation 9.11, a reduction in mean drop size should increase NO
x
emissions
by reducing the time required for fuel evaporation. However, if combustion
takes place under conditions where the evaporation time is negligibly small
in comparison with the total combustor residence time, for example, at high
combustion pressures, NO
x
emissions can actually go down with a reduction
in mean drop size, as observed by Rink and Lefebvre [17].
For more information on semi-analytical equations for the estimation of
NO
x
emissions from gas turbines, reference should be made to Becker and
Perkavec [108] and Nicol et al. [109].
Comparisons between the various published equations for predicting NO
x
emissions from conventional combustors are prohibited by the fact that in
432 Gas Turbine Combustion: Alternative Fuels and Emissions, Third Edition
some cases the units for NO
x
are in parts per million by volume (ppmv) and
in others grams per kilogram of fuel (EI). Conversion from one set of units to
the other cannot be undertaken unless the equivalence ratio is known but, as
a rough guide, one EI is roughly equivalent to around 12 ppmv. In general,
most expressions for NO
x
provide an excellent t to the experimental data
employed in their derivation. As NO
x
formation in conventional combustors
occurs primarily via the thermal mechanism, which is almost solely depen-
dent on reaction temperature, this is not too surprising.
9.11.2 Carbon Monoxide Correlations
Similar correlations to those presented above for NO
x
have been developed
for CO. One important difference stems from the fact that the formation of
CO in the primary combustion zone takes appreciably longer than the time
required to produce NO
x
. In consequence, the relevant temperature is not
the local peak value adjacent to the evaporating fuel drops, but the average
value throughout the primary zone, T
pz
. Also, because CO emissions are most
important at low pressure conditions, where evaporation rates are relatively
slow, it is necessary to reduce the combustion volume, V
c
, by the volume
occupied in fuel evaporation, V
e
. Lefebvre’s approach [102] gives
CO 86 //
Apzpzce
=− −
(
)
mT TVVPPexp(.)()
.
000345
0
∆
55
15
P
.
g/kg fuel,
(9.12)
where V
e
, the volume employed in fuel evaporation, is obtained as
VmD
epzpzeff
/= 055
0
2
..
ρλ
(9.13)
In this equation, it is of interest to note that V
e
is proportional to the square
of the initial mean drop size. This highlights the importance of good atomi-
zation to the attainment of low CO. The ability of Equation 9.12 to predict
CO emissions from a P&W F100 and a GE F101 combustor is illustrated in
Figures 9.43 and 9.44, respectively.
A similar form of expression to Equation 9.12 has been derived by Rizk and
Mongia [107] as
CO = 0.18 × 10
9
exp(7800/T
pz
)/P
2
(t − 0.4t
e
)(ΔP/P)
0.5
g/kg. (9.14)
This equation yields a slightly lower dependence on combustion tempera-
ture and a slightly higher dependence on pressure than Equation 9.12.
The most recent study on the prediction and correlation of CO emissions
from stationary gas turbines is that of Connors et al. [110]. These workers
found that Mellor’s characteristic time model [103] could be used to satisfac-
torily predict CO emissions from two heavy-duty power-generation units
operating on natural gas or No. 2 fuel oil without inert injection.
Emissions 433
50
20
10
5
2
1.0
0.5
0.5 1.0 25
CO (predicted), g/kg
CO (measured), g/kg
10 20
m
A
= 2.8–7.3 kg/s
50
P
3
= 370–1520 kPa
T
3
= 486–864 K
Figure 9.43
Comparison of measured and predicted values of CO for a P&W F100 combustor.
100
50
20
10
5
2
1
12 510
CO (measured), g/kg
CO (predicted), g/kg
P
3
= 386–1266 kPa
T
3
= 464–850 K
m = 8.5–20.5 kg/s
20 50 100
Figure 9.44
Comparison of measured and predicted values of CO for a GE F101 combustor.
434 Gas Turbine Combustion: Alternative Fuels and Emissions, Third Edition
Correlating parameters have also been developed for UHC and smoke, but
they tend to be less reliable than those for NO
x
and CO. Examples of UHC
and smoke correlations may be found in Rizk and Mongia [107,111].
9.12 Concluding Remarks
Most of the drive toward more strict control of pollutant emissions from gas
turbines is being directed at NO
x
. Low NO
x
levels are readily achieved by
eliminating zones of high temperature from the combustor. The challenge is
broadly to keep ame temperatures down at high-power conditions without
incurring unacceptable penalties in combustion performance when operat-
ing at low-power conditions. For the immediate future, the development of
various forms of staged combustion appears to be most promising, despite
the attendant penalties for the engine in terms of more complex fuel schedul-
ing and control strategy. Looking further ahead, lean-premixed combustion
appears to be the best technology available for achieving sub-10 ppmv NO
x
emissions in industrial combustors, but the problems of spontaneous igni-
tion and ashback need to be fully addressed before lean-premixed combus-
tion can be applied with condence to aircraft engines. Problems of acoustic
resonance could also be of great importance to the future development of
lean-premixed combustors.
The work carried out so far on various RQL congurations has shown that
this concept has considerable promise for very low NO
x
emissions. Its future
prospects depend largely on whether the rich combustion products emanat-
ing from the primary zone can be mixed quickly enough with the remaining
combustion air to largely eliminate NO
x
and soot. Catalytic combustors are
capable of achieving exceptionally low levels of NO
x
. Unfortunately, the life
expectancy of catalysts and substrates under typical high-temperature con-
ditions is still too short for most practical applications. This drawback can be
alleviated to some extent by the use of postcatalyst combustion, which allows
the catalyst bed to operate at lower temperatures with consequent benets
in terms of reliability and longer life. The work now in progress is directed
mainly toward catalytic combustors for stationary engines. Considerable
advances in high-temperature materials will be needed to raise their reli-
ability to the standard required for aircraft engines.
The continuing need to conserve fuel resources can only be met by raising
the engine cycle efciency. In practice, this traditionally calls for an increase in
engine pressure ratio, an approach that reduces CO
2
emissions, but results in
higher combustion temperatures and higher levels of NO
x
. Thus, the desire to
burn less fuel, thereby generating less CO
2
, is in direct conict with the equally
important need to reduce NO
x
. For the foreseeable future, it seems likely that
engine pressure ratios will rise to a maximum value of around 60 and yet
Emissions 435
designers of future combustors will be called on to reduce NO
x
emissions by
another 50%, and virtually eliminate soot emissions and combustion instability.
These will be the research and development challenges of the future.
Nomenclature
D
o
Sauter mean diameter, m
L liner length, m
m˙
A
combustor airow rate, kg/s
m˙
pz
primary-zone airow rate, kg/s
P pressure (kPa in Equations 9.7, 9.11, 9.12, and 9.14, Pa in Equation 9.8,
and atm in Equations 9.9 and 9.10)
ΔP/P nondimensional pressure drop
q fuel/air ratio by mass
SMD Sauter mean diameter, m
T temperature, K
T
c
combustion temperature, K
T
st
stoichiometric ame temperature, K
t residence time in combustion zone, s
t
e
evaporation time, s
τ NO
x
formation time, s
U liner ow velocity (average), m/s
V
c
combustion volume, m
3
V
e
volume occupied in evaporation, m
3
ϕ equivalence ratio
λ
eff
evaporation constant, m
2
/s
ρ density, kg/m
3
Subscripts
pz primary zone value
st stoichiometric value
3 combustor inlet value
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