Lasswell Harold D. The Political Writings of Harold D. Lasswell
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THE CRITERIA OF
POLITICAL
TYPES
61
bra
of
the term
can
lead
empirical investigators
to
scruti-
nize the
behavior
of children from
a
new
point
of
view.
Many
of the terms
which are
used to
describe adult traits
are no doubt
unpredictable
from the
less
differentiated
traits
of infancy,
childhood, and youth. But the growth
of full-blown
developmental types
requires the sifting and
refinement
of terms until they are adequate to the
descrip-
tion of sequences of
growth. Developmental types will
describe
a
set of
terminal, adult
reactions, and relate them
to
those critical experiences
in
the
antecedent life
of
the
individual which dispose him to set up such
a
mode of
dealing with the
world. Developmental
types
will not
only
include the subjective account of the
history of the
personality
but
will embrace the objective factors
which
were co-operating
to produce
the patterns
described.
The
notion of
a
developmental
type
may
be
illustrated
by
examining the place which is assigned to
the political
man
in the chief modern characterological
systems.
Hans
Apfelbach has used five dimensions for the description
of characters. Each
one
is described as
a
gamut between
two polar opposites, and
a
sixth
pair of polar opposites
is introduced into the system. The scheme is indicated in
Table II.
This gives
a
formal range of sixty-four
types of char-
acter
formation without allowing
for subtle variations in
quantity. The first combination which Apfelbach
specifies
is, symbolically, ABCDEF.
This is
a
very
masculine,
sadistic, hyperemotional, moral, intellectually
keen,
and
upright character. Among
men this is the
type
of
the
organizers, politicians,
the great preachers, generals,
dic-
tators,
and
the like. Among women,
this is the
type of the
organizer of every
description, especially the political
or
patriotic enthusiast, like
Joan
of Arc. It
should be ob-
62
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
AND POLITICS
served
that
the terms
"masculine" and
"feminine" are
not
used
in
a
mutually
exclusive
sense. Carrying
on the
tradition
of
Weininger and
Fliess, these
terms
are
em-
ployed
to
designate
traits
which may be
present
in differ-
*
1
20
ent
proportions
in
the same
person.
The
political
man
appears
in
Jung's
system at
various
intersections
of
his
underlying
scheme. The
essential
Dimension
Sexuality
Psychomotility
Emotionality
Morality
Intellectuality
(specialized)
Accessory
elements
cleavage in
Jung's
classification
is between those
whose
psychic
energy
(libido) flows
outward toward objects
(ex-
traversion) and those
whose libido
flows
inward (intro-
version). The former
enter
into
full
affective
relations
with the world around;
the latter are mainly focused
on
their private interpretations
of experience. In
addition
to
these fundamental dynamic relationships,
Jung
sub-
classifies
with
reference
to
our fundamental
psychological
functions:
thinking,
feeling, sensation,
intuition. These
functions may operate against one
another consciously or
unconsciously.
So,
when
thinking predominates in con-
^^
Hans
Apfelbach, Der
Aufbau
des
Charakters. Cf. Otto
"Weininger,
Geschlecht und
Charakter
;
Fliess,
Ablauf
des
Lebens.
TABLE II
Polar
Elements
Masculine
A
Feminine a
Psychosadistic
B
Psychomasochistic b
Hyperemotional C
Hypo-emotional
c
Moral
D
Immoral
d
Superior
E
Inferior e
Altruistic
F
Egotistic f
THE
CRITERIA OF POLITICAL TYPES
63
sciousness,
feeling is repressed; and
the reverse.
Intuition
is
understood
to be a
kind
of
instinctive
comprehension,
a
function peculiarly
dependent upon the
unconscious.
According to
the predominance of one or another
of these
basic
functions,
Jung
constructs four special types
of ex-
traversion and introversion.
Certain conspicuous
political
types
belong
to Jung's
category of extraverted
thinkers.
These
individuals try to
bring
their
whole
life-activity into relation with intellectual
conclusions, which in the last resort are always oriented
by
objective
data,
whether objective facts or generally
valid ideas. By his formula are
good
and evil measured:
all
is wrong that contradicts it,
and
all is right that cor-
responds
to it;
all
is
accidental
that is
neutral
toward
it.
Just
as
the extraverted thinking
type
subordinates himself
to
his formula, he
seeks to
subordinate
all others to
it,
as
a
manifestation of
a
universal inspiration. His moral code
forbids him
to
tolerate exceptions, and he would bend
all
to
suit the scheme. "One really should"
or
"one must"
figure largely in his program. If the formula is wide
enough,
Jung
remarks that the extraverted thinker
may
figure as
a
reformer,
a
ventilator of public
wrongs, and a
propagandist. But the more
rigid
his formula,
the
more
likely he is to grow into
a
grumbler,
a
crafty reasoner,
and
a
self-righteous
critic.
Many politicians
answer to the general
description
which
Jung
gives of the extraverted, intuitive type. The intuitive
is
unattracted
by
the
established
values; he is drawn
to
the
possible rather
than
to
the
actual. He seizes
hold
of
new
objects
and ways of
doing things with
eager
intensity,
only to abandon
them cold-bloodedly,
when their implica-
tions become obvious. The irresistible magnet
of the rising
sun fires his imagination and guides his activity.
For
the
64
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND POLITICS
risen sun and
the setting
sun there is no enthusiasm,
no
special hostility,
only indifference.
Here is the facile pro-
moter, who
senses the dawning
future and
speeds
from
project to
project, bored with routine
and detail after
projects have
been
accepted
and
the blueprints finished.
^^
The
types of Apfelbach and
Jung
are based upon
a
small
number
of
reactive mechanisms which
are supposed to
influence in different degree the growth
of
the
personality.
These "mechanism"
types
may contain
many
useful
leads,
but the methodological problem in isolating
these hypo-
thetical mechanisms is
unsettled. A "stable" reaction
in adulthood may be
far
from stable when viewed
at
suc-
cessive growth periods. These "mechanism"
types
seem
to
encourage endless classificatory ventures
at
the expense
of
detailed reporting of life-histories. For reasons which
have
been
set
forth, subjective histories
are
of the greatest
importance
to
social science; and any excessive interest in
"mechanism" which
minimizes
the importance
of elaborate
individual records is
to be
deplored.
Jung
and
Apfelbach
say
very
little
about
the principal epochs of individual
development,
and distract attention from the
career as
a
whole, as
this career is structuralized in
successive phases.
Before
outlining our developmental conception of
the
homo
politicus, we
return
to the work of Freud, for his
method has
enabled
him
to keep close
to
the subjective
se-
quence
and to use
classificatory terms in relation
to
the
successive
phases of
impulse organization
in the develop-
ing
personality.
"'
C. G. Jung,
Psychological Types,
chap. x.
CHAPTER
V
THEORIES
OF
PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT
It
will
be remembered that Freud's search
for
signs of
the
traumatic
situation led
him
to
uncover the contempo-
raneous
functioning of
all
sorts
of
unconscious
motivations
in both the diseased
and
the
healthy personality. The quest
led him farther. Freud felt impelled
to
set up
a
schematic
representation of the typical genetic development of
the
human personality. This grew
out
of the comparative
study
of very thoroughly analyzed
cases and was
rooted
in empirical observation. Freud
has always kept
close
to
his
data; and no
matter how far his imagination
soared,
actual
clinical experience was the starting-place
and the
landing-field for the flight.
The energy of
a
developed
personality can
be treated
as
dispersed in
three directions: in the affirmative expres-
sion of socialized impulses,
in unsocialized impulses, and
in the maintenance of resistance
charges against unsocial-
ized impulses.
The
original forms
of energy expression
which
are
available
to the infant
are
in many
ways
incom-
patible
with the
demands
of
human intercourse. The
in-
fant must surrender
many
primitive
forms
of
gratification,
if he is to
be
loved,
and to avoid discomfort
and
pain. He
must build up
a
self which
represents the demands of
society.
The
surrounding adults
coerce and wheedle
him
into taking their commands for
his own laws. The con-
science is the
introjected environment which
imposes
limi-
tations
upon the antisocial impulses. As
the infant and
child grows, he
avoids conflicts with the environment
by
65
66
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
AND
POLITICS
removing
the locus of the conflict within
himself,
and plays
nurse,
mother,
and
father
to
himself.
He learns
to
control
his
own excretions
and
to
chasten his own
murderous rages.
He achieves
individuality
of emphasis
by accepting the
socialization of his major impulses.
But
this incorporation
of the
requirements
of the
social
order into the personality
does
not proceed smoothly,
nor
does
it
abolish
the
primitive
psychological structures which
have been developed and apparently discarded
at each
step
of the way toward
adulthood. Much of the energy
of the
personality
is
spent
in
blocking
the entry of the
unadjusted impulses of the
self
into consciousness and
into overt expression. Careful scrutiny of individual be-
havior
over
a
twenty-four-hour period strikingly shows
the
extent
to
which the personality is controlled
by
very
elementary psychological structures.
Moments of
fatigue,
moments of deprivation, moments of irresponsible
reverie,
all betray the presence of tendencies
which
are
unassimi-
lated to
the world of adult
reality.
Freud began to
build
up
his conception of personality
development
by
the gradual
universalization of phenomena
which he encountered in actual
clinical work,
and
which
he
first described in
relatively
modest
and restricted terms.
He began
his original
psychological
contributions by
stressing
the role of
sexuality in the etiology
of certain
neuroses.
He found that
all sorts of pathological condi-
tions and
developmental
abnormalities were apparently
due
to
some
shortcoming in sexual
integration. This em-
phasis
upon sexual
adjustment as
a
necessary prerequisite
of
healthy adulthood met
with
so
much
opposition that
Freud's
energies
were taken up with defending and elab-
orating his
position. Now the
sexual function is essen-
tially
a
species function and
stresses the biological uni-
PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT
67
formities
of
man at
the expense
of
individuality. A topic
like
"personality development" requires
a
comprehensive
theory of
individuality,
and
this Freud did not
develop
until the split
with Adler,
who
insisted upon the role of
a
drive toward individualization and
who denied that the
much neglected
"ego
instincts"
of
Freud were enough
to
support
a
comprehensive
theory.
The
story of Freud's
neurosis-sexuality-personality
theories begins with his earliest
independent psychological
contributions. Many
clinicians
before Freud had been
abundantly
impressed
by
the frequency
with
which sexual
troubles seemed
to beget
"nervous"
troubles.
In his hyp-
notic work, Freud was especially struck
by
the frequency
with which specifically sexual episodes
were involved in
the pathogenic experiences. Freud now proceeded
to gen-
eralize about the sexual element in neurosis,
and an-
nounced that
neurosis
was
a
function of deviated sexual
life.
Freud armed in defense of his generalization
with two
new
weapons. The first was his experience in
letting his
patients talk
it
out and
in treating most
of their
produc-
tions as
symbolic
of
something else.
He acquired facility
in interpreting what other people
took
literally
as
being
a
disguised representation of something
else.
So,
when
Freud was confronted with
cases
which were
not mani-
festly sexual,
he
felt
able to treat the non-sexual elements
as
symbolic representations of sexuality
and
to
justify him-
self
by
claiming
that
his more intensive
research procedure
supplied him with the sustaining
facts.
Needless to
say,
those who had not themselves
experienced the
shift in
standpoint which
Freud had achieved
were alienated
by
his
seeming arbitrariness.
Freud's second reliance
was
on an
inclusive
theory
of
68
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND
POLITICS
sexuality.
Undaunted by the ridicule heaped
upon his
sexual
theory
of the neurosis, he
carried the war into
enemy
territory by
extending the whole
concept of sexual-
ity
backward
from puberty through
the life of the grow-
ing
child
to
infancy.
At
first glance this might appear
to be
a
cheap, dialec-
tical
trick
to
confound
his critics
by
telling them that
"sex"
meant
all the
things
they had called
by
other names.
Freud's
Three Contributions
to Sexual Theory
was saved
from being
a
rhetorical
quibble
by
the virtuosity of his
imagination and by
the
apparent definiteness of the con-
nections
which
he traced between the various features of
childhood
development and the patterns
of healthy and
perverse adult
sexuality. Careful analysis
of
biologically
efficacious
intercourse shows that
it is
a
complex integra-
tion
of many
acts.
It involves
a
partner
of
the
opposite
sex. Its
essential feature is
an
increasing
tension until the
point
of explosive
release, followed
by
perfect relaxation.
The male must be
sadistic enough
to
run
the risk of hurt-
ing
the
female
by
injecting the penis in
the vagina. The
participants must be
willing
to
indulge in
all sorts of pre-
liminary play
for the sake of heightening
the critical ten-
sion,
involving
tongue, lips, nipples,
and all the erogenous
zones
of
the
body.
Comparing
the details of this completed
pattern of the
unambiguously sexual act
with the earlier
activities of
the infant and
child, Freud
drew
a
host of analogies.
Children indulge
in play in sexual postures,
exhibit their
sexual
parts
to
one
another,
and
take pleasure
in sexual
peeping; but
Freud
carried his analysis of the
sexuality
of
children
much
farther. Child specialists had
often re-
marked
that
the
nursing male child frequently
exhibits
the
phenomenon
of an erect
penis
and
a
desire
to
suckle
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT 69
for
some
time after
hunger contractions
cease.
The gen-
eral
pattern
of
the
sequence hunger-nursing-peaceful re-
laxation
follows the
characteristic curve of the sexual act.
Freud
suggested that
inspection of the nursing pattern re-
veals that the pleasure
derived
by the
child
goes
far
be-
yond immediate biological
necessities. This
excess grati-
fication
Freud treats
as
a
primitive outcropping of the
sexual
instinct, which need not
be
supposed
to
appear
suddenly
with the maturation
of
the glandular
apparatus,
but may
be
thought of as
growing like
the usual
biological
process by
integrating partial components into one com-
plex synthesis.
Sexual differentiation
arises gradually, for
at
first
dis-
tinctions of
sex are
not
recognized
by the child. The
human animal is bisexual,
a
concept
which Freud
took
over with some reservations from Wilhelm Fliess.
Dis-
tinctions
are
achieved within the world of family
experi-
ence. The child is attracted
sexually
toward the
parent
of the
opposite sex but
is
too
weak
to compete for
the
loved
object.
Thus the father, who is
too
mighty
to be
killed and
put out
of the way, is copied
by the son, who
seeks
to absorb
his power into his own
personality. The
repression of the father-hostility, mother-love
sentiments
produces the Oedipus complex. The child
achieves
a
so-
cialized
self by
playing the role of
the father in relation
to
his own impulses. The "latency period"
arises from
four
to
six, according
to
Freud, when
the early sexual
struggle against
the father is given
up. The
fear of the
father (the "castration complex")
leads
to
the passing
of
the Oedipus phase of growth.
Now Freud specified
a
variety of difficulties
which
arise
whenever there
is failure
to
achieve successful
integration
of
the partial components
of the sexual instinct.
He con-
70 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
AND
POLITICS
nected homosexuality, psychological
frigidity
and impo-
tence,
exhibitionism,
sadism, masochism,
voyeurism,
and
a
variety
of
other abnormalities with definite
failures
in
integration. Sometimes
the individual
becomes obsessed
by
ideas
which
have
a
disguised sexual
meaning,
and some-
times he indulges in physical
symptoms which
possess
a
similar unconscious significance.
The first is
an obses-
sional neurosis, and the second is hysteria.
The stress which
Freud laid upon the sexuality of
the
child, and upon
socialization
by
intimidation,
broke with
revolutionary violence in
a
culture which
swaddled its
infants in sentimentality. The child of the
poets was
like
this:
Not in entire forgetfulness,
And
not in utter
nakedness,
But trailing
clouds of glory we do come
From
God,
who is
our
home:
Heaven lies about us in our infancy!
—
William Wordsworth
The
child
of
the Freudians was like this:
The child,
at
one time
or
another in its life, is, in
a
sense, auto-
erotic, narcissistic, exhibitionistic, inclined to play the role of
"Jack
the Peeper,"
incestuous, patricidal,
or
matricidal, homo-
sexual,
fetichistic, masochistic and sadistic
[G.
V.
Hamilton,
An
Introduction to
Objective Psycho
pathology,
p.
301].
As
early as
1898 Freud
had
begun to
elaborate the
idea
that
sexuality
begins
at
birth.
But as late
as
1900,
when the Interpretation
of
Dreams
appeared, he wrote in
a
footnote
that "childhood
knows nothing, as yet,
of
sex-
ual
desire."
With the elaboration
of his sexual
theory,
Freud
became less
preoccupied
in defending
himself
against
his psychiatric
colleagues
than in
perfecting
de-
fenses
against
his friends.
Freud began to
build up
a