Kutz M. Handbook of materials selection

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432 OVERVIEW OF CERAMIC MATERIALS

Table 8 Key Properties for PZT Based Piezoceramics

Material

Piezoelectric

Modulus, d

Curie Temp

(⬚C)

Coupling

Coefﬁcent, k

A 226 ⫻ 10

⫺

m/ V 320 0.67

B 635

⫻ 10

⫺

m/ V 145 0.68

C 417

⫻ 10

⫺

m/ V 330 0.73

crystalline barium titanate in the 1940s and lead zirconate titanates (PZT) in the

1950s. Both of these materials have high values of d and thus develop a high

voltage for a given applied stress. PZT has become widely used because in

addition to a high d value, it also has a very high coupling coefﬁcient. Sonar,

in which ultrasonic pulses are emitted and reﬂected ‘‘echoes’’ are received, is

used to locate ships, ﬁsh, and map the ocean ﬂoor by navies, ﬁshermen, and

scientists all over the globe. Medical ultrasound utilizes phased arrays of piezo-

ceramic transducers to image organs and fetuses noninvasively and without

exposure to radiation. A relatively new application that has found signiﬁcant use

in the microelectronics industry is the use of piezoceramics to drive microposi-

tioning devices and micromotors. Some of these devices can control positioning

to a nanometer or less. Piezoceramic transducers combined with sophisticated

signal detection and generation electronics to create ‘‘active’’ noise and vibration

damping devices. In such devices the electronics detect and quantify a noise

spectrum and then drive the transducers to provide a spectrum 180

⬚ out of phase

with the noise, thereby, effectively canceling it.

Many of the current high-performance applications of piezoceramics are

based on proprietary modiﬁcations of PZT, which contain additions of various

dopants or are solid solutions with perovskite compounds of Pb with Mg, Mn,

Nb, Sn, Mo, or Ni. Table 8, lists the range of several key piezoceramic selection

parameters for proprietary PZT compositions from one manufacturer.

4.6 Transparencies

Transparent ceramics (which include glasses, single-crystal, and polycrystalline

ceramics) have been used as optical transparencies or lenses for millennia. Glass

windows were in commercial production in ﬁrst century Rome, but it was not

until the 1800s, with the need for precision optics for microscopes, telescopes,

and ophthalmic lenses, that glasses and other optical materials became the object

of serious scientiﬁc study. As noted in the introduction, progress in glass science

and technology, coupled with lasers, has led to the current broadband digital

data transmission revolution via optical ﬁbers. Various ceramic crystals are used

as laser hosts and specialty optical lenses and windows. A signiﬁcant frac-

tion of supermarket scanner windows combine the scratch resistance of sapphire

(single-crystal alumina) with its ability to transmit the red laser light that we see

at the checkout counter. While such windows are signiﬁcantly more costly than

glass, their replacement rate is so low that they have increased proﬁtability for

several supermarket chains. For the same reason the crystal in many high-end

watches are scratch-resistant manmade sapphire. Polycrystalline translucent (as

opposed to fully transparent) alumina is used as containers (envelops) for the

sodium vapor lamps that light our highways and industrial sites.

5 INFORMATION SOURCES 433

Not all windows have to pass visible light. Radar or mid- to far-infrared

transparencies look opaque to the human eye but are perfectly functional win-

dows at their design wavelengths. The most demanding applications for such

transparencies is for the guidance domes of missiles. Materials that can be used

for missile radomes include slip-cast fused silica, various grades of pyroceram

(glass ceramics), and silicon-nitride based materials. Infrared (IR) windows and

missle domes include MgF

and ZnSe. Requirements exist for having missile

guidance domes that can transmit in the visible, IR, and radar frequencies (multi-

mode domes). Ceramic materials that can provide such functionality include

sapphire and aluminum oxynitride spinel (AlON). In addition to optical prop-

erties missile domes must be able to take high aerothermal loading (have

sufﬁcient strength) and be thermal shock resistant (a high-speed missile encoun-

tering a rain cloud can have an instant

⌬T of minus several hundred degrees

kelvin).

Key properties for visible and IR optical materials include the index of re-

fraction, n (which will be a function of wavelength), and absorption or loss. For

radar transparencies key parameters are dielectric constant (which can be thought

of as analogous to the index of refraction) and dielectric loss.

5 INFORMATION SOURCES

5.1 Manufacturers and Suppliers

There are hundreds of manufacturers of advanced ceramics and glasses. Locating

ones that either already have the material that is needed, and can produce it in

the conﬁguration required, can be a daunting task. There are two resources

published annually that make this task much easier. The American Ceramic

Society publishes a directory of suppliers of materials, supplies, and services

that can help locate such information quickly. It is called Ceramic Source. This

directory can also be accessed on the worldwide web at www.ceramics.org. A

similar Buyers Guide is published by Ceramic Industry Magazine, and this can

also be viewed online at www.ceramicindustry.com. Once a likely source for

your need has been identiﬁed, a visit to the supplier’s web site can often provide

a great deal of background information and speciﬁc data, which can make further

contacts with the supplier much more meaningful and informative.

5.2 Data

Manufacturer’s literature both hardcopy and posted on the worldwide web, are

invaluable sources of data. The handbooks, textbooks, and encyclopedias listed

below are also excellent sources of data. However, before committing to a ﬁ-

nalized design or to production, it is advisable to develop one’s own test data

in conformance with you own organization’s design practice. Such data should

be acquired from actual components made by the material, processing route, and

manufacturer that have been selected for the production item.

ASM, Ceramics and Glasses, Vol 4, Engineered Materials Handbook, ASM

International, Materials Park, OH, 1991.

J. F. Shackelsford, W. Alexander, and J. Park (eds.), Materials Science and

Engineering Handbook, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1994.

434 OVERVIEW OF CERAMIC MATERIALS

C. X. Campbell and S. K. El-Rahaiby (eds.), Databook on Mechanical and

Thermophysical Properties of Whisker-Reinforced Ceramic Matrix Com-

posites, Ceramics Information Analysis Center, Purdue University, W. La-

fayette, IN, and The American Ceramic Society, Westerville, OH, 1995.

R. J. Brook (ed.), Concise Encyclopedia of Advanced Ceramic Materials,

Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1991.

5.3 Standards and Test Methods

To reliably design, procure materials, and assure reliability, it is necessary to

have common, agreed-upon, and authoritative test standards, methods, and prac-

tices. Institutions such as the American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM),

the Japanese Institute for Standards (JIS), the German Standards Organization

(DIN), and the International Standards Organization (ISO) all provide standards

for there various constituencies. The following are a sampling of standards avail-

able from the ASTM and JIS for advanced ceramics and ceramic matrix com-

posites. One can reach these organizations at the following addresses.

American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM), 100 Barr Harbor Drive,

Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959:

●

C-177-85(1993), Test Method for Steady State Heat Flux and Thermal

Transmissionby Means of the Gradient-Hot-Plate Apparatus

●

C-1161-90, Test Method for Flexural Strength of Advanced Ceramics

at Ambient Temperature

●

C-1211-92, Test Method for Flexural Strength of Advanced Ceramics

at Elevated Temperature

●

C-1259-94, Test Method for Dynamic Young’s Modulus, Shear Mod-

ulus and Poisons Ratio for Advanced Ceramics by Impulse Excitation

of Vibration

●

C-1286-94, Classiﬁcation for Advanced Ceramics

●

C-1292-95A, Test Method for Shear Strength of Continuous Fiber-

Reinforced Ceranic Composites (CFCCs) at Ambient Temperatures

●

C-1337-96, Test Method for Creep and Creep-Rupture of CFFFs un-

der Tensile Loading at Elevated Temperature

●

C-1421-99, Standard Test Method for Determination of Fracture

Toughness of Advanced Ceramics at Ambient Temperature

●

C-1425-99, Test Method for Interlaminar Shear Strength of 1-D and

2D CFCCs at Elevated Temperature

●

E-228-85(1989), Test Method for Linear Thermal Expansion of Solid

Materials with aVitreous Silica Dilatometer

●

E-1269-94, Test Method for Determining Speciﬁc Heat Capacity by

DifferentialScanning Calorimetry

●

E-1461-92, Test Method for Thermal Diffusion of Solids by the Flash

Method

The Japanese Standards Association, 1-24, Akasaka 4, Minato-ku, Tokyo 107

Japan:

6 FUTURE TRENDS 435

●

Testing Methods for Elastic Modulus of High Performance Ceramics

at ElevatedTemperatures; JIS R 1605-(1989)

●

Testing Methods for Tensile Strength of High Performance Ceramics

at Room and Elevated Temperatures; JIS R 1606-(1990)

●

Testing Methods for Fracture Toughness of High Performance Ceram-

ics; JIS R 1607-(1990)

●

Testing Methods for Compressive Strength of High Performance Ce-

ramics; JIS R 1608-(1990)

●

Testing Methods for Oxidation Resistance of Non-Oxide of High Per-

formance Ceramics; JIS R 1609-(1990)

●

Testing Methods for Vickers Hardness of High Performance Ceram-

ics; JIS R 1610-(1991)

●

Testing Methods of Thermal Diffusivity, Speciﬁc Heat Capacity, and

ThermalConductivity for High Performance Ceramics by Laser Flash

Method; JIS R 1611-(1991)

In addition to testing standards, it is possible to obtain standard materials with

certiﬁed properties to calibrate several of these new standards against your own

tests. Such standard materials can be obtained from the National Institute of

Science and Technology (NIST). For example, a standard material to calibrate

ASTM C-1421-99 has just been made available. Materials standards are not

available for all of the above tests.

5.4 Design Handbooks

It has been widely recognized that procedural handbooks that provide method-

ology on how to design with advanced ceramics and which can provide high

quality evaluated design data are sorely needed for ceramic materials. The ce-

ramics matrix composites (CMCs) community has taken the initiative to begin

the process of creating such a handbook for its constituency. The activity is

sponsored by various U.S. governmental agencies including the Department of

Defense, the Department of Energy, The Federal Aviation Administration, and

the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and is entitled MIL-

Handbook-17. This activity brings together materials suppliers, materials testers,

designers, and end users who are engaged in developing a handbook that will

provide design tools and guidance, provide guidelines on data generation, doc-

umentation, and use, and provide an authoritative source of design quality data.

This is a work in progress and its completion is many years off, if ever. Nev-

ertheless, much guidance in design and testing of advanced CMCs has already

resulted from this activity. Progress can be followed by periodically accessing

the handbook websites at http://mil-17.udel.edu or http://www.materials-

sciences.com/MIL17/. Unfortunately, no similar activity exists for monolithic

ceramics.

6 FUTURE TRENDS

It has been estimated that in the United States advanced ceramics of the type

discussed above are an over $8-billion-dollar a year industry with a growth rate

⬃8% per year.

436 OVERVIEW OF CERAMIC MATERIALS

The largest segment of this growth will come from the electronics area. Not

only will there be signiﬁcant growth in the ‘‘traditional’’ roles of ceramics as

insulators, packages, substrates, and capacitors, but structural ceramics will play

a major role in the equipment used in semiconductor manufacturing. This trend

will be especially driven by the resistance of ceramics such as SiC, AlN, silicon

nitride, and alumina to the erosive and corrosive environments within high-

energy plasma chambers used in single-wafer processing operations.

The intertwined global issues of energy sufﬁciency and environmental pro-

tection will see commercial use of advanced ceramics in energy systems as

diverse as solid oxide fuel cells and pebble-bed modular reactors (nuclear). As

more and more industries move toward ‘‘green’’ (pollution free) manufacturing,

there will be growth in wear- and corrosion-resistant ceramics for industrial

machinery. There will also be substantial growth potential for ceramic ﬁlters and

membranes. One major environmentally driven opportunity will be particulate

traps for diesel trucks and industrial power sources. This technology is just

beginning to be commercialized, and it is certain to see rapid growth as emis-

sions requirements for diesel engines grow more stringent. Not all progress in

these areas will create increased markets for ceramics; some will reduce them.

For example, the rapid growth of energy-efﬁcient light-emitting diode technol-

ogy for illumination will create a signiﬁcant growth opportunity for producers

of single-crystal SiC substrates and GaN materials. However, this will come at

a cost to the ceramics industry of a signiﬁcant decrease in glass envelopes for

incandescent bulbs and ﬂuorescent tubes. Another area of growth will be ﬁlters

and membranes for ﬁltration of hot or corrosive, or both, gases and liquids.

The explosive growth of ﬁber-optic- and microwave-based digital communi-

cations technology has produced signiﬁcant opportunities and markets for ad-

vanced ceramics and glasses and will continue to do so into the foreseeable

future.

Medical applications are sure to grow, both in the area of diagnostics and

prosthetics.

At the entrance to the Pohang Steel complex in Pohang, Republic of Korea,

is a wonderful sign. It proclaims; ‘‘Resources are Limited—Creativity is Unlim-

ited.’’ This thought certainly applies to the global future of advanced ceramics.

Creatively utilized advanced ceramics will effectively expand our resources, pro-

tect our environment, and create new technological opportunities. The potential

opportunities go far beyond the few discussed in this chapter.

REFERENCES

1. P. B. Vandiver, ‘‘Reconstructing and Interpreting the Technologies of Ancient Ceramics,’’ in

Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology, Materials Res. Soc. Symposium Proceed., Vol. 123,

MRS, Pittsburgh, 1988, pp. 89–102.

2. Materials Science and Engineering for the 1990’s, National Academy Press, Washington, DC,

1989, p. 24.

3. R. N. Katz, ‘‘Piezoceramics,’’ Ceramic Industry, Aug. 20 (2000).

4. D. W. Richerson, Modern Ceramic Engineering, 2nd ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1992,

pp. 582–588.

5. J. S. Haggerty and Y. M. Chiang, ‘‘Reaction-Based Processing Methods for Materials and Com-

posites,’’ Ceramic Eng. Sci. Proceed., 11(7–8), 757–781 (1990).

6. See Ref. 4, Chapters 9–11.

REFERENCES 437

7. A. F. McLean and D. Hartsock, ‘‘Design with Structural Ceramics,’’ in Treatise on Materials

Science and Technology, Vol. 29, J. B. Wachtman (Ed.), Academic Press, Boston, 1989, pp. 27–

95.

8. N. N. Nemeth and J. P. Gyekenyesi, ‘‘Probabilistic Design of Ceramic Components with the

NASA/CARES Computer Program,’’ in Ceramics and Glasses: Vol. 4, Engineered Materials

Handbook, ASM International, Metals Park, OH, 1991, pp. 700–708.

9. R. N. Katz, ‘‘Application of High Performance Ceramics in Heat Engine Design,’’ Materials Sci.

Eng., 71, 227–249 (1985).

10. R. N. Katz, ‘‘Ceramic Materials for Roller Element Bearing Application,’’ in Friction and Wear

of Ceramics, Said Jahanmir (Ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York, 1994, pp. 313–328.

11. W. D. Kingery, H. K. Bowen, and D. R. Uhlmann, Introduction to Ceramics, 2nd ed., Wiley,

New York, 1976, p. 822 ff.

12. D. P. H. Hasselman, ‘‘Figures-of-Merit for the Thermal Stress Resistance of High Temperature

Brittle Materials: A Review,’’ Ceramurgia International, 4(4), 147–150 (1998).

13. D. W. Richerson, The Magic of Ceramics, The American Ceramic Society, Westerville, OH,

2000, p. 141.

14. NSF Workshop Report, Fundamental Research Needs in Ceramics, Washington, DC, April, 1999,

p. 9.

15. J. F. Nye, Physical Properties of Crystals, Oxford University Press, London, 1964, pp. 110ff.

16. T. Abraham, ‘‘US Advanced Ceramics Growth Continues,’’ Ceramic Industry, Aug., pp. 23–25

(2000).

PART 3

FINDING AND MANAGING MATERIALS

INFORMATION AND DATA

HandbookofMaterialsSelection.EditedbyMyerKutz

441

CHAPTER 15

HOW TO FIND MATERIALS

PROPERTIES DATA

Patricia E. Kirkwood

Paciﬁc Lutheran University

Tacoma, Washington

1 INTRODUCTION 441

2 THE PROCESS 444

3 DATABASES 454

REFERENCES 456

1 INTRODUCTION

Locating information, especially information regarding the physical properties

of materials, is often like doing a logic puzzle. First you have an explanation of

what you are going to do with limited information. Then you are given a set of

clues or data that are known. Starting with what you know, you sort information

logically to get to the ‘‘correct answer.’’ When you ﬁrst start solving the logic

puzzle, it always seems there are too few clues. This tempts you to make as-

sumptions such as ‘‘the character named Chris is female.’’ Making assumptions

early in the process often means you end up with the wrong answer. When

starting to look for data and other information about materials, it is easy to

assume that the information must be in a speciﬁc tool or database. It is often

easier to assume the data simply does not exist, that it must exist in a speciﬁed

format to be useful, or that the information must be retrieved from the engi-

neering literature. The two most insidious assumptions are that the information

will be published in English and that to contain good data the information must

have been published in the last 5 years (OK, maybe 10 years). Falling prey to

these assumptions will mean much time is wasted both in the information search

process and when developing novel materials.

To solve a logic puzzle, the puzzle solver will take multiple steps and often

repeat those steps until the puzzle has been completed (see Fig. 1). The basic

process is cyclic with a solution being reached when enough information has

been gathered. The solution should always be double-checked before going to

the answer key.

Luckily, when you are locating information to solve materials engineering

problems you do not rely on just what you have in front of you. In fact, looking

for unique data to help you solve your problem is the best way to deal with

HandbookofMaterialsSelection.EditedbyMyerKutz

442 HOW TO FIND MATERIALS PROPERTIES DATA

Eventually there is enough information to solve the puzzle

The solution

Record what you know

Review the matrix

Find additional clues

Return to recording

The logic problem

Start with what you know from the clues

Fig. 1 Solving a logic puzzle.

real-life logic puzzles, especially in materials science. Unfortunately, because

you do not have to limit your quest for information to the description provided,

the process is a bit more complicated though is similar to solving the logic

puzzle. Table 1 shows a ‘‘logic’’ grid that information seekers use subcon-

sciously. This grid shows three logic steps:

Know what your compound/material is and how it will be referred to in the

literature.

Know what information is in each data source.

Learn how to use the indexes available in the data sources.

Looking for information is cyclic in nature, with steps being redone until the

information needed is gathered (or until you are sure there is no information to

ﬁnd). The solution should be double-checked when possible by using multiple

sources. The steps held in common when searching for any information are:

Deﬁne the question.

Set up a strategy to locate the needed information.

Use the resources you know best.

Go to less known resources when necessary.

Evaluate the quality of the data/information resource.

Start again, if needed, using the new information to help better deﬁne the

question.

Know when the information gathered is enough (or probably all there is).

This chapter will discuss these steps in depth making recommendations that will

help the materials engineer ﬁnd data and information more easily and within

443

Table 1 Resource Grid: Focus on Tools That May Have Information Needed—An Example

Question: What Is Thermal Conductivity of Diamonds?

Resource Basic Information Available Availability Notes

Dictionary of Organic Compounds OR

Dictionary of Inorganic Compounds

Synthesis, reaction, and property

information, for organic and

inorganic compounds of use to

man; includes references

In the library with online index

through the web

Quick browse in the online

chemnetbase.com index reminds

me that diamond is a material not

a compound and not included in

these type of resources.

Thermochemical Data of Organic

Compounds

As stated in title On my shelf Won’t work—diamond is a material

compound

Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical

Technology

Manufacturing and properties of

chemical materials

Online version paid for by company

and accessible from by database

Some data on diamond

Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and

Electronics Engineering

Useful data and extensive sections

detailing methods, etc.

Available online Good resource for background and

industry information

NBS Tables of Chemical

Thermodynamic Properties, Donald

Wagman, et al., NBS, 1982

Selected chemical thermodynamic

properties

In the company library—a

supplement to Journal of Physical

and Chemical Reference Data OR

NIST online ﬁles freely accessible

from my desktop

This speciﬁc volume won’t do as

thermal conductivity is not

included, but other tables might be

useful. (In fact several of the other

resources refer to Volume 1 of The

Journal of Physical and Chemical

Reference Data

CRC Handbook of Chemistry and

Physics

Lots of data, references to original

literature

On my shelf Look up diamond or thermal

conductivity, ﬁnd tables, ﬁnd

references to more detailed data

Handbook of Physical Quantities by

Igor S. Grigoriev and Evgenii Z.

Meilikhov, ed., CRC Press, 1997

Detailed information on physical

properties including explanations

of methods and calculations,

references to more detailed

sources

In the company library Has a nice table on thermal

conductivity of elements. Diamond

is listed and there are references to

four more detailed sources

Rock Physics and Phase Relations,

Thomas J. Ahrens, ed., American

Geophysical Union, 1995

Physical properties of rocks and

minerals

In the company library Not needed today, but something to

keep in mind—going outside the

traditional when the traditional

resources don’t work

Landolt Zahlenwerte und Funktionen

aus Naturwissenschaften und

Technik, neue Serie by

Gesamtherausgabe, K.H. Hellwege,

Springer Verlag, 1961–

Extensive data on properties of

materials

At the local university library Difﬁcult to use, will ask the librarian

if more data is needed