Klocke F. Manufacturing Processes 1: Cutting
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x Contents
3.8 Cutting Theory . . . ....................... 87
3.8.1 Shear Plane Theory . .................. 87
3.8.2 Application of Plasticity Theory to Cutting . . .... 92
4 Cutting Tool Materials and Tools ................... 95
4.1 Overview of Cutting Tool Materials . . ............. 95
4.1.1 Classification of Hard Cutting Tool Materials . .... 97
4.2 ToolSteels ............................ 99
4.2.1 ColdWorkSteels.................... 100
4.2.2 High Speed Steels . .................. 101
4.3 CementedCarbides........................ 110
4.3.1 HistoricalDevelopment ................ 111
4.3.2 Cemented Carbide Production ............. 112
4.3.3 Components of Cemented Carbides and Their
Properties . ....................... 114
4.3.4 Microstructure ..................... 116
4.3.5 ClassificationofCementedCarbides.......... 117
4.3.6 Uncoated Cemented Carbides and Cermets . . .... 123
4.3.7 Function Gradient Cemented Carbides . ........ 123
4.3.8 CoatedCementedCarbidesandCermets........ 126
4.4 Coatings ............................. 127
4.4.1 Coating Methods . . .................. 128
4.4.2 Specific Properties of Hard Material Coatings . .... 149
4.4.3 Substrate Pretreatment ................. 161
4.5 Ceramic Cutting Tool Materials ................. 161
4.5.1 Cutting Ceramics . . .................. 162
4.5.2 Superhard Non-metallic Cutting Tool Materials .... 173
4.6 ToolDesigns ........................... 184
4.6.1 SolidTools ....................... 185
4.6.2 ToolswithInserts.................... 187
4.7 Tool Preparation . . ....................... 193
5 Finite Element Method (FEM) .................... 197
5.1 Basic Concepts of FEM . . . .................. 197
5.2 Lagrangian and Eulerian Considerations of the Continuum . . . 199
5.3 Explicit and Implicit Methods of Solution ............ 199
5.4 Combined Thermal and Mechanical FEA ............ 200
5.5 Nonlinearities ........................... 200
5.6 MaterialLaws .......................... 201
5.7 Software ............................. 204
5.8 Hardware............................. 205
5.9 Phases of a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) . . . ........ 205
5.10 The Use of FEM in Cutting Technology ............. 206
5.10.1 Continuous Chip Simulation . ............. 207
5.10.2 SegmentedChipSimulation .............. 209
5.10.3 Simulation of the Cutting Process . . . ........ 212
Contents xi
6 Cutting Fluids .............................. 219
6.1 The Functions of Cutting Fluids ................. 219
6.2 Types of Cutting Fluids ...................... 219
6.2.1 Non Water-Miscible Cutting Fluids . . ........ 220
6.2.2 Water-Based Cutting Fluids . ............. 221
6.3 GuidelinesontheUseofCoolantEmulsions .......... 222
6.4 Effects of the Cutting Fluid on the Machining Process . .... 223
6.5 Selection of Cutting Fluids . . .................. 226
6.6 Reducing or Avoiding the Use of Cutting Fluids . ........ 227
6.6.1 Reducing Cutting Fluids . . . ............. 228
6.6.2 Minimum Quantity Cooling Lubrication (MQCL) . . . 229
6.6.3 Avoiding Cutting Fluids . . . ............. 233
7 Tool Life Behaviour ........................... 237
7.1 DeterminingToolLifeParameters................ 239
7.2 Machinability ........................... 239
7.2.1 ToolLife ........................ 240
7.2.2 ResultantForce..................... 243
7.2.3 Surface Quality . . . .................. 245
7.2.4 ChipForm ....................... 248
7.2.5 Cutting Speed ...................... 248
7.3 The Machinability of Steel Materials . ............. 249
7.3.1 Metallographic Constituents . ............. 250
7.3.2 CarbonContent..................... 252
7.3.3 AlloyingElements ................... 254
7.3.4 Types of Heat Treatment . . . ............. 256
7.4 Machinability of Various Steel Materials ............ 263
7.4.1 Machining Steels . . .................. 263
7.4.2 Case-Hardened Steels ................. 266
7.4.3 Heat-TreatableSteels.................. 267
7.4.4 NitridedSteels ..................... 268
7.4.5 ToolSteels ....................... 269
7.4.6 Hardened Steels . . .................. 271
7.4.7 Non-rustingSteels ................... 274
7.5 Machinability of Cast Iron . . .................. 280
7.5.1 WhiteCastIron..................... 280
7.5.2 GreyCastIron ..................... 283
7.6 Machinability of Non-ferrous Metals . ............. 290
7.6.1 AluminiumAlloys ................... 290
7.6.2 Magnesium Alloys . .................. 293
7.6.3 TitaniumAlloys .................... 296
7.6.4 Copper Alloys . . . .................. 311
7.6.5 NickelAlloys...................... 314
7.7 Machinability of Non-metals . .................. 327
7.7.1 Graphite......................... 327
7.7.2 Fibre-ReinforcedPlastics................ 331
xii Contents
8 Process Design and Process Monitoring ............... 339
8.1 Finding Economical Cutting Parameters ............. 339
8.1.1 Cutting Parameter Limits . . . ............. 339
8.1.2 Optimizing the Cutting Parameters . . . ........ 342
8.1.3 Calculating the Machine Hour-Rate . . ........ 350
8.1.4 Planning Methods and Tools . ............. 351
8.2 Process Monitoring . ....................... 352
8.2.1 Sensors for Process Monitoring ............ 354
8.2.2 Signal Processing and Monitoring Strategies . .... 371
9 Processes with Rotational Primary Movement ............ 383
9.1 Turning.............................. 383
9.1.1 FaceTurning ...................... 385
9.1.2 CylindricalTurning................... 386
9.1.3 HelicalTurning..................... 387
9.1.4 ProfileTurning ..................... 388
9.1.5 FormTurning...................... 389
9.1.6 Further Process Variants . . . ............. 390
9.2 Milling . . ............................ 390
9.2.1 Process Variants, Specific Characteristics and Tools . . 395
9.3 Drilling . . ............................ 416
9.3.1 Profile Counterboring .................. 416
9.3.2 Rotary Drilling . . . .................. 418
9.4 Sawing .............................. 439
9.4.1 Bandsawing ....................... 439
9.4.2 Hacksawing ....................... 442
9.4.3 CircularSawing .................... 442
10 Processes with Translatory Primary Movement ........... 445
10.1 Broaching . ............................ 445
10.1.1 Face and Circular Broaching . ............. 446
10.1.2 Profile Broaching . . .................. 449
10.1.3 Form Broaching . . .................. 451
10.2 Shaving.............................. 454
10.3 Planing and Shaping ....................... 457
10.3.1 Face Shaping and Face Planing ............ 458
10.3.2 Gear Shaping ...................... 459
10.3.3 GearPlaning ...................... 466
References .................................. 469
Subject Index ................................. 497
Symbols and Abbreviations
Capital Letters
A mm
2
Cross section
A % Stretch ratio
A
c1
Transformation temperature (Start of austenite formation)
A
c3
Transformation temperature (End of austenite formation)
A
α
mm
2
Flank face
A
α
mm
2
Minor flank face
A
γ
mm
2
Rake face
A
mm
2
Shear face
AFK Aramid Faser reinforced plastics
AIP Arc Ion Plating
AV mm Offset
BAZ Machining center
C
f
min Axis intercept of the expanded TAYLOR equation,
f = 1mm
C
v
min Axis intercept of the expanded TAYLOR equation,
v
c
= 1 m/min
CBN Cubic boron nitride
CFK Carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP)
CNC Computerised Numerical Control
CVD Chemical Vapour Deposition
CWT Continuous wavelet transform
D mm Tool diameter
DC Direct current
DLC Diamond-like carbon
DMS Strain gauge
DP Polycrystalline diamond
DWT Discrete wavelet transform
E Young’s modulus
EB-PVD Electron beam-PVD
xiii
xiv Symbols and Abbreviations
ECM Electro chemical machining
EDX Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
F N Resultant force
F
a
N Active force
F
c
N Cutting force
F
D
N Thrust force
F
f
N Feed force
F
p
N Passive force
F
N Shear force
FFT Fast Fourier transform
FVK Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP)
GFK Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP)
H mm Stroke length
HB Brinell hardness
HC Diamond coated cemented carbide
HF Fine grain cemented carbide
HF-CVD Hot-Filament-Process-CVD
HM Cemented carbide
HRC Rockwell hardness
HSC High Speed Cutting
HSS High Speed Steel
HT-CVD High temperature-CVD
HV Vicker hardness
K
A
C Imputed amortizations
K
E
C Energy costs
K
I
C Maintenance costs
K
F,min
C/St. Minimal manufacturing costs per workpiece
K
MH
C/h Machine hour-rate
K
ML
C Machine and labour cost hourly rate
K
R
C Room costs
K
Z
C Imputed interest
KB mm Crater width
KM mm Crater center distance
KSS Cutting fluid
KT mm Crater depth
L
C/h Hourly wage
LARC Lateral Rotating Arc
MQCL Quantity Cooling Lubrication
MQC Minimum quantity cooling
MQS Minimum quantity lubrication
MQL Minimum quantity lubrication
MSIP Magnetron Sputter Ion Plating
MT-CVD Moderate Temperature-CVD
NC Numerical control
Symbols and Abbreviations xv
NE-Metalle Non-ferrous metals
PA-CVD Plasmaactivated-CVD
P
c
W Cutting power
P
e
W Effective power
P
f
Assumed working plane
P
f
W Feed power
P
n
Tool cutting edge normal plane
P
ne
Effective cutting edge normal plane
P
o
Tool orthogonal plane
P
p
Tool back plane
P
r
Tool reference plane
P
s
Cutting edge plane
P
W
W Effective power
PKD Polycrystalline diamond
PM Powder metallurgy
PM-HSS Powder Metallurgy High Speed Steel
PVD Physical Vapour Deposition
Q C Charge
R Electrical resistance
R
a
μm Average roughness
R
e
N/mm
2
Elastic limit
REM Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
R
kin
μm Surface quality
R
m
N/mm
2
Tensile strength
R
p0,2
N/mm
2
0.2%–yield strength
R
t
μm (Depth of) Surface roughness
R
z
μm Averaged surface roughness
RF Radio Frequency
S Major cutting edge
S
Minor cutting edge
SKV μm Rounded cutting edge
STFT Short-Time Fourier Analysis
SV
α
mm Displacement of the cutting edge in the direction of
the flank face
SV
γ
mm Displacement of the cutting edge in the direction of
the rake face
T min Tool life
T
◦
C Temperature
T
m
◦
C Melting temperature
T
r
◦
C Room temperature
T
sp
◦
C Temperature on the chip upper side
U V Voltage
U
0
V Feeding voltage
VB mm Width of flank wear land
xvi Symbols and Abbreviations
VB
max
mm Maximal width of flank wear land
VHM Cemented Carbide
W
c
J Cutting work
W
e
J Effective work
W
f
J Feed work
WZ-D mm Tool diameter
WSP Insert
Z Atomic number
ZTU Time Temperature Transformation (TTT)
Small Letters
a
e
mm Width of cut
a
p
mm Depth of cut
a
pmax
mm Maximum depth of cut
a
pok
mm Optimal-cost depth of cut
a-C Hydrogenfree amorphous carbon film
a-C:H Hydrogenated amorphous carbon film
at.-% Atomic ratio
B mm Width of undeformed chip
b
fα
mm Width of chamfer
C m/min Speed of sound
c
p
Process capability index
c
pk
Rectified process capability index
d
ij
pC/N Piezoelectric coefficient
dW/dt m/min Growth of wear
f mm Feed
f
a
mm Axial feed
f
ok
mm Optimal-cost feed
f
max
mm Maximal feed
f
min
mm Minimal feed
f
r
mm Radial feed
f
z
mm Feed per tooth/cutting edge
f
0
1/s Eigenfrequency
H mm Undeformed chip thickness
h
ch
mm Chip thickness
h
cu,max
μm Maximal chip thickness
h
min
mm Minimal chip thickness
K Strain sensitivity
k
c1.1
N/mm
2
Specific cutting force, b = h = 1mm
k
f1.1
N/mm
2
Specific feed force, b = h = 1mm
k
i
N/mm
2
Specific resultant force
k
p1.1
N/mm
2
Specific passive force, b = h = 1mm
Symbols and Abbreviations xvii
l
c
m Cutting path
l
f
m Feed path
m
c
Exponent of the specific cutting force
m
n
mm Normal module
p
KSS
bar Cutting fluid pressure
r
ε
mm Corner radius
r
ß
mm Rounded cutting edge radius
s
d
Coating thickness
T mm Pitch
T sTime
t
e,min
min Minimal time per unit
t
g
min Basic time
t
v
min Additional time
t
e
min Time per unit
t
er
min Recovery time
t
h
min Main process time
t
n
min Auxiliary process time
t
r
min Setting-up time
ta-C Tetrahedral hydrogenated amorphous carbon film
v
c
m/min Cutting velocity
v
ch
m/min Chip velocity
v
f
m/min Feed velocity
v
fax
mm/min Axiale feed velocity
v
e
m/min Effective velocity
x mm Profile offset
z Number of teeth
Greek Letters
α
◦
Tool clearance angle
α
eff
◦
Effective tool clearance angle
α
f
◦
First tool orthogonal clearance (Broaching)
α
F
◦
Clearance angle at the pitch diameter (Gear shaping)
α
o
◦
Tool clearance angle
α
oe
◦
Working clearance angle
β
◦
Wedge angle
β
o
◦
Wedge angle
β
oe
◦
Working wedge angle
γ
o
◦
Tool orthogonal rake angle
γ
n
◦
Tool normal rake angle
γ
ne
◦
Working rake angle
γ
oe
◦
Wirk-Orthogonalspanwinkel
γ
eff
◦
Effective rake angle
xviii Symbols and Abbreviations
ε Strain
¯ε Shear strain
˙
¯ε s
–1
Shear strain speed
˙ε 1/s Strain r ate
ε
k
Critical strain
ε
r
◦
Tool included angle
η
◦
Effective cutting speed angle
ϑ
◦
C Temperature
κ
r
◦
Tool cutting edge angle
κ
re
◦
Working cutting edge angle
λ
s
◦
Tool cutting edge inclination
λ
se
◦
Working cutting edge inclination angle
μ Coefficient of friction
φ
◦
Phase
φ
◦
Shear angle
φ
f
◦
Slide angle
ϕ
◦
Feed motion angle
ρ kg/m
3
Density
σ N/mm
2
Stress
σ
n
N/mm
2
Normal stress
ω rad/s Angular speed