Jackson S.D., Hargreaves J.S.J. Metal Oxide Catalysis

528 12 Vanadium Phosphate Catalysts

Unlike the previous work, this study examined the fact that none of the

alkene intermediates desorb from the surface. Zhang - Lin and coworkers pro-

posed that the reaction proceeded via more strongly adsorbed alkoxide inter-

mediates that would remain on the surface for the whole oxidation scheme

(Scheme 12.5 ).

Agaskar and coworkers [46] have proposed a different consecutive alkoxide

mechanism, based on theoretical and experimental results. Unlike other propos-

als, they suggest that adsorbed oxygen is the active oxygen species.

Theoretical calculations imply that gaseous oxygen is adsorbed onto the surface

as a η

2

- peroxo species. However, it is thought that a η

1

- superoxo species may be

the dominant form, if the oxide species is stabilized by interactions with neighbor-

ing metal - oxo atoms ( 11 ) (Scheme 12.6 ).

Gaseous butane is activated by hydrogen abstraction by the adsorbed superoxo

species, to give a surface - bound hydroperoxy group ( 12 ). Simultaneously, the

butene is adsorbed onto a surface vanadyl group. This is followed by a further

hydrogen abstraction by the hydroperoxy group, to give a water molecule and a

bridging alkoxide surface species ( 13 ). The next step involves a Br ø nsted acid site,

where the alkoxide undergoes an acid - catalyzed reaction, to give 1,3 - butadiene and

another water molecule ( 14 ). The ﬁ nal steps to maleic anhydride then proceed as

described by Schi ø tt and J ø rgensen [58, 59] (Scheme 12.3 ).

Scheme 12.5

Scheme 12.6

12.6.3

Concerted Mechanism

The concerted mechanism proposed by Zi ó ł kowski and coworkers [203, 204] is

based on theoretical calculations on the (100) plane of (VO)

2

P

2

O

7

. The butane is

adsorbed via hydrogen bonds to the active site. The active site has the following

properties:

The site has three routes of relatively easy movement of hydrogen along the

surface. Abstraction of the ﬁ rst two hydrogen atoms (from carbons C

1

and C

4

)

forms very strong bonds between the molecule and the catalyst (C

1

–

V

C

, C

4

–

V

D

).

These bonds enable the molecule to be anchored to the surface long enough for

the reaction to occur (Figure 12.12 ).

The molecule must have contact with ﬁ ve active oxygen atoms: P

A

–

O

A

, P

B

–

O

B

,

V

E

–

O

E

, and weakly adsorbed oxygen atoms O

D

and O

C

. O

E

, O

A

and O

B

make bridges

from which hydrogen atoms from all four carbons may move away. The oxygen

atoms O

E

and O

C

are responsible for anchoring the terminal carbons, and P

A

–

O

A

,

V

E

–

O

E

and V

C

–

O

C

are in convenient positions to be incorporated into the molecule

to form maleic anhydride (Scheme 12.7 ).

The adsorbed butane is activated (by hydrogen abstraction) to give butadiene

before the concerted step to form maleic anhydride. The formation of maleic

anhydride creates seven oxygen vacancies on the surface. The re - oxidation of the

surface is proposed to be the rate determining step.

However, there is no experimental evidence for this mechanism. It is based on

the deduction that the idealized surface structure has the right conﬁ guration for

Figure 12.12 The active site for the concerted mechanism

proposed by Zi ó ł kowski and coworkers [203, 204] .

(Reproduced with permission).

12.6 Mechanism of n-Butane Partial Oxidation 529

530 12 Vanadium Phosphate Catalysts

the reaction to occur in this way. It is proposed that the reaction occurs in one

step after the adsorption of butane on the active site.

12.6.4

Redox Couple Mechanism

Centi and coworkers [37] have proposed that the reaction proceeds via a series of

redox couples. The mechanism is based on experimental data obtained at high

butane concentrations and total oxygen conversions. Under these conditions the

catalyst undergoes a partial reduction and many V

3+

sites are formed. The activa-

tion of butane requires a V

4+

–

V

3+

couple, while the subsequent conversion to maleic

anhydride needs a V

5+

–

V

4+

couple. The alkenes from butane dehydrogenation can

desorb if no oxidizing sites are available. When the oxidizing sites are available,

the alkenes are adsorbed and react very quickly to give maleic anhydride.

Under normal reaction conditions with lower concentrations of butane, there

will be fewer V

3+

sites. Following butane activation there will be numerous oxidiz-

ing sites available and so desorbed alkenes are not detected. Apart from the dis-

tribution and availability of the different sites, the authors consider that the

mechanism at low and high butane concentrations is the same.

12.7

Concluding Comments

Vanadium phosphates have been applied to a number of selective oxidation and

ammoxidation reactions, although the partial oxidation of n - butane to maleic

anhydride remains the most widely studied reaction for these catalysts. Even

though the ﬁ rst patent for this reaction was ﬁ led over 40 years ago, there are still

a large number of papers published on this system every year.

This may, in part, be due to this reaction being the only industrial large scale

functionalization of an alkane currently in operation, and knowledge gleaned from

vanadium phosphate systems can provide valuable information that can be applied

to different alkane activation reactions. To this end a number of the publications

have focused and continue to focus on a fundamental understanding of the catalyst

active surface and the active site. In recent years, transient techniques such as the

use of TAP reactors and in situ characterization studies have advanced the under-

Scheme 12.7

References 531

standing of the system, although this has led to considerable debate as to the exact

nature of the active surface and the active site. Despite the fact that model studies

and mechanistic proposals have been postulated using crystalline VPP as the active

surface, increasingly this is being disputed, with evidence pointing to the impor-

tance of V

5+

and/or amorphous phases in the catalyst.

It is no surprise that a large number of publications and patents describing the

addition of promoter elements, as these can be easily introduced into the industrial

catalyst formulation. It is perhaps more surprising that a number of publications

are focused on new preparation methods for a catalyst that is used industrially

with high selectivity and activity. These investigations may be driven by engineer-

ing requirements, with the advances in new technology such as riser reactors or

membrane reactors requiring catalysts with different characteristics to those used

in ﬁ xed - bed reactors.

It is clear that vanadium phosphate catalysts are still widely studied although

not widely understood. Advances in research methodology, particularly the number

of complementary in situ characterization techniques now available, may be able

to further the understanding of alkane activation and selective oxidation. This

fundamental understanding will be beneﬁ cial in the design of new catalyst systems

for alkane functionalization and provide new uses for this relatively unreactive,

under - utilized feedstock.

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