Higman Chris Gasification (Газификация угля)
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380
Gasification
PV Photo Voltaic
RDF Refuse Derived Fuel
RSC Radiant Syngas Cooler
SAFT Stoichiometric Adiabatic Flame
Temperature
SCGP Shell Coal Gasification Process
SCOT Shell Claus Off Gas Treatment
SCR Selective Catalytic Reduction
SGP Shell Gasification Process
SMDS Shell Middle Distillate Synthesis
SNG Synthetic Natural Gas or Substitute
Natural Gas
SRU Sulfur Recovery Unit
TEA Tri-Ethanol Amine
UCG Underground Coal Gasification
UVV Unfallverhütungsvorschriften (German
safety regulations)
Abbreviation Description
381
Index
A
Acid gas removal (AGR), 298, 299, 300, 316
Amine as chemical washes, 301, 302–303
Amisol process, 308
Ammonia, 232–239
design considerations, 233–236
economics, 329, 330, 331
example, 236–239
market, 232
production capacity development, 4
production costs with different
feedstocks, 330
residue-based plant flowchart, 236
solubility in water, 210
sulfur compounds in, 208
syngas specification, 232–233
synthesis, 171, 172
water quench and, 194
Anaerobic digestion of biomass, 155
Anthracite, 42, 43
density, 49
as preferred fuel, 53
Applications, 231–291
advanced cycles, 270–278
ammonia, 232–239
carbon monoxide and oxo-alcohols,
249–252
chemicals, 231–252
comparison with combustion, 260–267
energy storage, 287–288
flue gas treatment, 278–286
gas to liquids, 254–258
hydrogen, 243, 245–248
methanol, 239–243, 244
power, 259–288
state-of-the-art IGCC, 267–270
synfuels, 252, 253–259
synthetic natural gas from coal, 258–259
Argon, 295, 298
Arsenic, 218, 339
Ash
biomass, 68, 70
chemical composition of, 50, 52
combustion of coal and, 45
fluid-bed gasifiers and, 100–101
fusion temperature and analysis, 51
melting properties, 49–50, 51
modeling and, 14–15
properties, 49–52
refinery residue with, 57
slagging behavior of, 87
temperature selection and properties
of, 19
B
Biomass gasifiers, 67–75, 147–155
anaerobic digestion of, 155
animal, 68, 69, 70, 71
coal formation and, 42
coal gasification versus, 147
cropping, 72–73
defining, 68
development potential, 73–75
marine cropping, 74, 75
production, 72–73
properties of, 68–70
reaction sequence, 30
syngas treating, 315
temperature, 147, 187, 193
vegetable, 68, 70
Biomass waste, 73
Bio-oil, 73–74, 75, 153–155
plants, 154
pyrolysis processes and, 153, 154
use for, 153
Bitumen, 65
382
Index
Black liquor, 70, 71–72, 159–161
composition of, 72
difficulties, 159
gasification combined cycle (BLGCC),
159, 160
gasification flowchart, 71
Boudouard reaction, 10, 12, 32
char gasification and, 33
melting dusting and, 225
process, 32
British gas/Lurgi (BGL) slagging gasifier,
94–97, 156
ash and, 184
development of, 94–95
diagram of, 95
equipment issues, 92
Lurgi dry ash versus, 96
process description, 95–96
process performance, 96
Ruhr 100 versus, 96
slagging to nonslagging regime, 193
waste gasification, 97
Browncoal, 42
Burners, 191–192
Butane asphalt, 56
C
Calcium, refinery residue with, 58
Candle filter, 200–201, 324
Carbon, 213–214
Conradson, 63
conversion, 25
conversion and fluid-bed gasifiers, 100
gasification footprint for, 22–23
management, 132, 134, 136–138, 142
removal, 131, 134
Carbon dioxide
as moderator, 16
as transport gas, 177
Carbon monoxide (CO)
applications, 250
design considerations, 249, 251–252, 253
example, 252
market, 249
plant flowchart, 251
shift, 315–318
specifications, 249
Carbonyls, 173, 214–217
Carnot process, 260, 261, 264, 265
CFB. See Fluid-bed gasifier, circulating
processes
Char, 32–35, 36
comparison to solid feedstocks, 33–34
effective reactivities, 34–35, 36
rate of reaction, 33
Charcoal, 69
Chemrec process, 159–160
Chlorides
corrosion aspects, 224–225
refinery residue with, 59
Chlorine
in coal, 47
compounds, 212
detrimental effects of, 47
footprint, 204–205, 207, 208
mercury removal, 218
Claus process, 299, 305, 308, 309, 318–319
Clean coal power (CCP) gasifier, 110, 114,
126–128, 195
Clean gas shift, 316–317
CO shift, 315–318
CO shift reaction, 315–316
Coal(s), 41–52, 213
advantages to gasify in power plants, 26
analysis, 42, 44–47
as-received (ar), 15
ash-free (af), 15, 48
biomass gasification versus, 147
bituminous, 42, 43, 49
caking and swelling properties, 48–49
calculating footprint, 24, 25
chlorine content, 47
classification of, 42–43
density, 49
drying, 183–184
formation of, 42
hardness, 49
heating value, 48
historical development of gasification and, 2
minimum temperature for gasification of, 147
modeling and, 15
moist-and-ash-free (maf), 14, 15, 48
moisture-free (mf), 15, 48
other minerals in, 47–48, 52
percentage gasified, 41
preheat with hot syngas, 182
Index
383
pressurization of, 173–183
properties, 48–49
proximate analysis, 44–45
reaction sequence, 30
reporting analyses basis, 47–48
reserves by region, 41
sizing, 183
sub-bituminous, 42, 43
synthetic natural gas from, 258–259
ultimate analysis, 45–47
Coal gasifiers in waste service, 156
Coal tar, 66
Coal-water slurry-feed gasifiers, 111, 116–117
drying coal and, 184
pumping coal as a, 177–179
size reduction of coal and, 183
wet lock hoppers and, 179
Coffee husks, 69
Coke, 53
petroleum, 53, 123
pyrolysis and, 2
Coke oven, 35, 36
development of, 2
reactor design and, 38
Coke oven gas, 67
Cold gas efficiency (CGE), 25, 26, 27,
93, 177, 219–220
Combined cycle (CC), 171, 265–267, 270,
282–283; see also Integrated
gasification combined cycle
Combustion volatiles, 31–32
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD), 39, 113
Continuously stirred tank reactors (CSTR), 37–38
Conversion factors, 361–365
Copper oxide, 312
Corrosion aspects, 223–225
Cotton residues (stalks), 69
Cryogenic processes, 293–295, 296, 310
Cyanide, 345
Cyanometallates, 345
D
Dalton equation, 16
Devolatization, 30–31
Dry coal ash, 346
Dry-coal feed gasifiers, 49, 113–116
coal performance in, 115
diagrams, 112
gas analysis and, 205
with lock hoppers, 173–177
process performance, 113–114
single-stage, 113
two-stage, 114, 116
Dry solids removal, 200–201
Dulong formula, 48
E
E-gas process, 110, 113, 116, 125–126, 184
Eagle gasifier, 110, 112, 114, 128, 195
Ebara process, 157–158
Economics, 329–335
Emissions conversion factors, 367–368
Energy
Entrained-flow gasifiers, 109–128
advantages, 109
ash and, 49, 50
characteristics, 86, 110
coal usage, 111
coal-water slurry-feed gasifiers, 111,
116–117
considerations, general, 113–117
description of, 85, 87
dry-coal feed gasifiers, 112, 113–116
feedstocks and, 39
high-temperature, 171
Koppers-Totzek, 3, 5, 117–118
lock hoppers and, 174
pressure, 172
process control, 207–208
reactions for, 24, 30
reactor complexity, 184
reactor modeling, 111, 112–113
reactor outlet temperature, 205
single-stage, 113, 117
swelling and, 49
temperature for, 23
two-stage, 114, 116, 117, 125, 128
up-flow slagging, 185
Environmental issues, 335–347
Equations, 16–17
Equilibrium constants, 209
Eucalyptus, 73
F
Fast internal circulating fluid-bed (FICFB)
process, 152–153
384
Index
Feedstocks, 15
biomass, 67–75
characteristics, 41–83
coals, 41–52
coke, 53
density, 61–62
heterogeneous nature, 76
liquid and gaseous, 53–67
natural gas, 66–67
pour point, 61
refinery gas, 67
refinery residues, 53, 54, 55–63
sizing, 77, 78
viscosity, 59–60
wastes, 76–79
Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, 3, 53, 119, 129
ARGE process, 254, 255
gas specifications, 256
Sasol and, 4, 94, 252, 255
sulfur compounds in, 208
syngas and, 252
Synthol process, 254, 255
Fischer-Tropsch off-gas, 67
Fixed carbon and proximate analysis, 45
Flash points, 62–63
Flue gas
desulfurization (FGD), 268
treatment, 278–286, 341
Flue gas recycle, 280–284
Fluid-bed gasifiers, 98–109, 157–158
agglomerating processes, 107–108
ash, 100–101
bubbling, 99, 101
carbon conversion, 100
characteristics, 86
circulating processes, 105, 106,
148–149, 157
description of, 85
development potential, 108–109
equipment issues, 101
feed quality, 100
functions, 98
high temperature Winkler (HTW)
process, 103–104
insulating brick wall, 187
issues, common, 99–101
melting and, 49, 50
operating temperature, 99–100
performance for different feedstocks
and blasts, typical, 102
pressure, 171, 172
pressurized processes, 150
processes, 148–150
reactor complexity of, 184
reactor modeling, 101, 102
regimes diagram, 98
swelling and, 49
Winkler process, 3, 5, 101, 102–103
Fluorine, 345
Formic acid, 213
Foster Wheeler circulating fluid-bed
process, 148–149
Fuel cells, 287
Fuel characteristics determination, 20, 21–23
Fuel nitrogen, 210
G
Gas analysis, 204–208
Gas to liquids (GTL), 254–258, 330
Gas turbine improvements, 286
Gaseous effluents, 336–339
Gasification
definition, 1
future, 355–357
historical development, 1–5
temperatures for, 9
today, 5–7
worldwide capacity, 6
Gasification-based power stations, 26
Greenhouse gases, 339–344
Ground nut shells, 69
H
Heat flux measurement, 203
Heat loss calculation at membrane wall,
189–191
Heat recovery steam generator (HRSG),
183, 265, 268, 272, 275, 280
Heavy metals precipitation, 345
High-temperature Winkler (HTW) process,
103–104, 156, 157, 163
Historical development, 1–5
Hot gas cleanup, 314–315
Humid air turbines (HAT) cycle, 272
Hydrocarbons, unsaturated, 212
Hydrogasification, 162–163
Index
385
Hydrogen, 243, 245–248
corrosion aspects, 224
cyanide, 211
design considerations, 246–247
example, 247–248
market, 243, 244
residue-based plant flowchart, 247
specification, 245
sulfide, 216
Hydrogenation and absorption, 321
I
IGCC. See Integrated gasification combined
cycle
in situ gasification, 87, 161–162
Integrated gasification combined cycle, 94
air-blown, typical, 222
applications, 26–27, 28, 104, 114, 172, 177
carbon dioxide and, 177
carbonyls and, 217
with CO
2
capture, 342
efficiencies, 269–270
efficiencies for entrained-flow
gasifiers, 116
flow schemes, 267–269
fuel gas expansion, 269
integration, 323
nitrogen and, 175
power plant flow diagram, 268
state-of-the-art, 267–270
temperature profiles, 278–280
use of hot syngas, 220–221
Iron
molten processes, 162
refinery residue with, 59
Iron carbonyl, 214, 215, 216, 217
Isothermal compression, 271–275
Issues, practical. See Practical issues
J
Jacket construction, 188–189
Joule cycle improvement options, 270
K
Kellogg Brown and Root (KBR) transport
gasifier, 105, 106–107
Kinetics, 29–35
char gasification, 32–35
devolatization, 30–31
volatiles combustion, 31–32
Koppers-Totzek (KT) gasifier, 3, 5,
117–118
characteristics, 110
diagram of, 118
jacket construction and, 188
process description, 117, 118
quenching, 194
L
Lignite, 42, 43, 49
Liquid effluents, 344–345
Liquid organic residue, 65–66
Liquid oxygen storage, 288
Lo-Cat process, 308–309
Lock hoppers, dry-coal feeding with,
173–177
development of, 173
diagram, 174
nitrogen and, 175
syngas and, 175–177
transport gases, 175–177
wet, 179–180
working of, 173
Lurgi circulating fluid-bed process, 105,
106, 148
Lurgi dry ash gasifier, 3, 9, 29, 88–94
applications, 94
British gas/Lurgi gasifier versus, 96
coal tar and, 66
computational fluid dynamics
and, 39
diagram of, 89
equipment issues, 92
gas liquor treatment, 91–92
patent for, 88
performance data, typical, 93
process description, 89–91
process flowchart diagram, 91
process performance, 92–93
reactor and, 184
Rectisol process and, 303
Ruhr 100 versus, 96
sizes and capacities of, 88
slagging to nonslagging regime, 193
temperature and gas composition
profiles, 90
386
Index
Lurgi’s multipurpose gasification (MPG)
process, 129, 140–142, 143, 144
carbon management, 142
description of, 140–141
diagrams of, 140–141
performance, 142, 143, 144
product gases, 144
waste heat recovery, 141
M
Marine cropping, 74, 75
Measurement, process, 201–208
gas analysis, 204–208
temperature, gasification, 201–204
temperature control, 204
Membrane wall(s), 187–188
conditions of, 190
heat loss calculations at, 189–191
steam make in, 203
temperature control, 204
Membrane systems, 312–315
Mercury, 217–218, 338–339
Metal dusting, 225
Methane
emissions, 343–344
flow data and gas combinations for
methane-fired combined cycle,
282–283
Methanol, 239–243, 244
design considerations, 241–243
economics, 329, 330, 331
energy storage and, 288
example, 243, 244
hot-generated, 305
market, 239
relative consumption by usage, 240
residue-based plant flowchart, 242
as solvent, 304
syngas specification, 240–241
Methanol synthesis, 171, 172, 208
Modeling, 13–23
data, basic, 14–16
deductions from, 17–23
equations, 16–17
feedstocks, 15
fuel footprint, 20, 21–23
moderator, 15–16
pressure effect, 17–19, 20
purpose, 13–14
reactor design applications, 38–40
surprises in calculations, 23
temperature effect, 19, 20, 21
temperature modification, 14
variables, 17
Molecular sieves, 310
Molten iron processes, 162
Moving-bed gasifier, 9–10, 36, 87–97
characteristics, 86
complexity of, 184
counter-current, 29, 30
description, 85
dry ash, 22, 50
Lurgi dry ash. See Lurgi dry ash gasifier
maintenance of, 92
pressure, 171
producer gas, 87
swelling and, 49
temperature control, 204
temperatures, 193
water gas, 87–88
MTCI “pulse enhanced” steam reformer,
160–161
N
Naphtha soot carbon recovery process, 136
Naphthenic acids, refinery residue with, 59
Natural gas, 66–67
oil gasification and partial oxidation of,
128–147
substitute, 5
Nickel
carbonyl, 214, 215, 217
refinery residue with, 58
Nitrogen
compounds, 209–212
effects of compound impurities, 210,
211–212
emissions, 338
formation of HCN and NH
3
, 209–210
refinery residue with, 57
safety and, 349
as transport gas, 175
typical concentrations, 210, 211
Noell process, 112, 120–122, 156
burners and, 192
characteristics, 110
Index
387
jacket construction and, 188–189
membrane walls and, 187
process description, 120–122
quenching, 194
as single-stage dry-coal feed
gasifier, 113
Norsk hydro vanadium recovery process,
142, 143, 144–145
O
Oil gasification, 214
Lurgi’s multipurpose gasification process,
140–142, 143, 144
new developments, 142, 143, 144–146
partial oxidation of natural gas and,
128–147
process automation, 146
process safety, 146–147
reactor shell monitoring, 146–147
Shell gasification process, 133–139
Texaco gasification process, 129–133
Organic chemical waste, 78
Orimulsion, 63–64
Oxidant choice, 219–223
cold gas efficiency and, 219, 220
deductions, 223
equipment sizing and gas flow rate, 221
hot syngas use and, 220–221
parasitic power, 222
temperature and, 220
Oxo-alcohols, 53, 65
design considerations, 249,
251–252, 253
example, 252
market, 249
plant flowchart, 251
specifications, 249
Oxygen, 212–213
choice of oxidant and, 219, 220
future developments for, 296–297
pipelines, 297
pressurized production, 295
safety and, 349–351
storage of liquid form of, 288
supply, 293–298
Oxygen Claus processes, 319–321
Oxygen-blown gasifier, 16, 32,
221, 222
P
Palm oil residues (shells, fibers, and fruit
stems), 69
Parasitic power, 222
Particulate removal, 200–201, 280
Peak shaving fuels, 288
Petcoke. See Coke, petroleum
Phenosolvan extraction process, 92
Pipelines, 297
Plasma gasification, 162
Plug flow reactors (PFR), 36, 37
Pour point, 61
Power, 259–288
comparison with combustion, 260–267
efficiencies, 269–270
efficiencies of plant cycles, 261
energy storage, 287–288
flow schemes, 267–269, 272, 273
flue gas treatment, 287–286
fuel cells, 287
fuel gas expansion, 269
gas cycles and combined cycles, 265–267
humid air turbines cycle, 272
isothermal compression, 271–272
methanol, 288
options for improving Joule cycle, 270
peak shaving fuels, 288
quasi-adiabatic compression, 273–274
recuperator, 275, 276
state-of-the-art IGCC, 267–270
station efficiency and NO
x
control, 277
steam cycles, 262–263
supercritical cycles, 263–265
tophat cycle, 272–273, 275, 276–278
water cycle, 275, 276
Practical issues, 171–230
burners, 191–192
coal sizing and drying, 183–184
corrosion aspects, 223–225
effect of pressure, 171–173
oxidant, choice of, 219–223
particulate removal, 200–201
pressurization of coal, 173–183
process measurement, 201–208
reactor design, 184–191
synthesis gas cooling, 192–200
trace components of raw synthesis gas,
208–218
388
Index
Prenflo process, 111, 113, 118–120
characteristics, 110
gas quench and, 195
membrane walls and, 187
Pressure
compression of reactants and,
172
effects of, 17–19, 20, 171–173
equipment and, 172
selection of, 18
side reactions and, 172–173
Pressure swing adsorption (PSA), 310–311,
313, 314
Process conditions, optimizing,
23–28
efficiencies, 25–26
indicators, 24–25
integrated gasification combined cycle
applications, 26–27, 28
operating point, 25–28
syngas and hydrogen applications,
27, 28
Process measurement. See Measurement,
process
Processes, gasification, 85–170
biomass, 147–155
black liquor, 159–161
categories, 85, 86
characteristics, 86
entrained-flow gasifiers, 109–128
fluid-bed gasifiers, 98–109
hydrogasification, 162–163
in situ, 87, 161–162
molten iron, 162
moving-bed gasifiers, 87–97
oil gasification and partial oxidation
of natural gas, 128–147
plasma, 162
wastes, 155–158
Producer gas, 3, 87
Proximate analysis, 44–45
Purisol process, 306
Pyrolsis
definition, 1, 2
flash, 74
processes, 153–155, 157
reactions, 113, 171
Pyrometers, 203
Q
Quasi-adiabatic compression, 273–274
Quenching, 193–196
chemical, 195–196
cooling gas by, 205
gas, 195, 206
radiant syngas cooler, 193–194
water, 194–195
R
Reactants, compression of, 172
Reactions, 10–13
Boudouard, 10, 12, 32
char gasification and, 32
combustion, 10
thermodynamic equilibrium, 11–13
Reactor design, 184–191
applications to, 38–40
containment and heat loss, 185–191
embodiment, 184–185
heat loss calculations at membrane wall,
189–191
jacket construction, 188–189
membrane walls, 187–188
refractory linings, 185–187
Reactor theory, 35–38
Rectisol process, 303–306
Recuperators, 275, 276
Refractory linings, 185–187
Refuse derived fuel (RDF) service, 156
Residues, 53, 54, 55–63
ash content, 57
calcium, 58
C/H ratio, 55
chloride, 59
Conradson carbon, 63
density, 61–62
flash and ignition temperatures, 62–63
iron, 59
liquid organic, 65–66
naphtenic acids, 59
nickel, 58
nitrogen content, 57
pour point, 61
requirements, 54, 55
silica, 59
sodium, 58
specifications, 56
Index
389
sulfur content, 56–57
tar sands, 64–65
vanadium, 57–58
viscosity, 59–60
Rubber, 79
Ruhr 100 gasifier, 97
British gas/Lurgi gasifier versus, 96
lock hoppers and, 173
Lurgi dry ash gasifier versus, 96
pressure, 171
S
Safety, 347–351
oxygen, 349–351
shutdown, 348
spontaneous combustion, 348
start-up, 348
toxic and asphyxiating materials, 349
Salt, 347
Selexol process, 306, 307
Shell coal gasification process (SCGP),
111, 113, 118–120
characteristics, 110
gas quench and, 175, 195
membrane wall and, 187
process description, 119–120
process diagram, 119
Shell gasification process (SGP),
133–140
carbon management, 134, 136–138
carbon removal, 134
description, 134, 135–136
development of, 133
diagrams of, 135–136
equipment performance, 138–139
performance with different
feedstocks, 139
waste heat recovery, 134
Silica, 59, 187
SilvaGas process, 150–152
Slag
analysis, 346
ash and, 50
environmental issues, 346
membrane walls and, 187–188
viscosity-temperature relationship, 50
Sodium, refinery residue with, 58
Solid effluents, 345–347
Soot
gasification, 145–146
removal, 136–137
Soya straw, 69
Spent lubricating oil, 66
Spontaneous combustion, 348
Stamet pump, 182
Steam
cycles, 262–263
as moderator, 15–16
reforming, 4
supercritical cycles, 263–265
Straw, 69, 70
Subdewpoint processes, 321, 322
Substitute natural gas (SNG), 5, 94, 103, 171
Sulfinol solvent, 307–308
Sulfur
compounds, 208–209
corrosion aspects and, 223–224
emissions, 337, 338
recovery, 299, 318–325
Sulfuric acid, 323–324
Suncor, 64
Superclaus, 321
Swelling index, 48
Syncrude, 64
Synfuels, 252, 253–259
availability and reliability, 333–335
economics, 330, 331–335
gas to liquids, 254–258
power production, 322–323
synthetic natural gas from coal, 258–259
Syngas. See Synthesis gas
Synthesis gas, 19
absorption systems, 300–309
adsorption systems, 309–312
applications for, 231, 232
biomass, 315
chemical washes, 301, 302–303
coal preheat with, 182
compression, 18
cooler designs, 197, 198–199
coolers, 196–197
cooling, 130–131
cooling in oil service, 197–199
economic boundary conditions, 300
membrane systems, 312–315
optimizing applications, 27, 28