Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada

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400 • TRAILL, CATHARINE PARR

Royal Canadian Military Institute, Upper Canada Law Society’s Os-

goode Hall, University of Toronto and its affiliates, York University,

Ontario College of Art, Art Gallery of Ontario, Roy Thomson Hall,

Hockey Hall of Fame, and Rogers Center. Toronto is headquarters

of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, many churches, in-

cluding the Anglican Church of Canada and the United Church of

Canada, and the principal Canadian banks. Prominent national news-

papers published in Toronto are the Globe and Mail and National

Post. See also SPORT; UNIVERSITIES.

TRAILL, CATHARINE PARR (1802–1899). The naturalist and

writer Catharine Parr Traill was born in England to a literary family.

One of her sisters was the writer Susanna Moodie. In 1832, Traill

and her husband immigrated to Canada and started a farm. They

were later followed by Susanna Moodie and her husband, who had a

farm nearby. Traill published in journals such as Literary Garland,

Anglo-American Magazine, and Maple Leaf. Her most popular work

was The Backwoods of Canada (1836) about her experiences, which

she also drew on for the novel Canadian Crusoes (1852). Traill also

wrote works about plants and nature.

TRANSPORTATION. It may rightly be said that Canada’s transporta-

tion originated with the birch bark canoe. On the Pacific coast, the

cedar canoe was the chief means of water transport; in the western

cordillera, cottonwood was used instead of cedar. Canoes brought

European commodities to the Indians and were employed in the

export of furs. Beginning in the 1740s, Hudson’s Bay Company

(HBC) employees built the York boat, based on an Orkney design,

a single-sailed, cargo-carrying large dory or bateau (plural bateaux),

for bulk transport on inland trade routes to and from Hudson Bay,

and bateaux were employed in many lakes.

Rapids on the St. Lawrence River above Montréal impeded safe

commerce and colonial defense. Locks were built at Lachine and

elsewhere to circumvent this problem. The Rideau Canal was con-

structed as an imperial defense measure, from Ottawa to Kingston,

so as to provide an alternative military link from Montréal for the

defense of Ontario. The navigation of the Great Lakes was accom-

plished in early days under sail, and canals built near Niagara and

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TRANSPORTATION • 401

Sault Ste. Marie allowed easy transshipment for small water craft.

Important canals built in the 19th century on the St. Lawrence al-

lowed for the bypassing of the great white rapids upstream, or west,

of Montréal. The Erie Canal, completed in 1829, bypassed many of

the difficulties of Canada’s river navigation. Four Welland canals,

each better than the other, were built from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie.

Gradually public works expanded the size of locks, so that by 1945

the Lakehead, of Lake Superior, was open to shipping from the At-

lantic. The St. Lawrence Seaway, a Canadian-American undertak-

ing opened in 1959, made that waterway an international one, under

regulation of a joint commission.

Steam navigation came to the rivers and lakes in the 1820s and

had a profound effect in enhancing commerce and colonization. Set-

tlers could move farther west along the north shore of Lake Ontario,

for instance, or the shores of Lake Huron in consequence of steam

navigation.

Vancouver’s wealth always depended on shipping, and the com-

pletion of the Panama Canal in 1914 led to rapid growth in Canadian

oceanic trade, connections with Europe, Canadian Pacific Railway

trans-Pacific steamships, and coastal trade. The harvesting of forests,

mines, and waters accelerated in consequence of better shipping and

port facilities introduced with the steam age. The first steam vessel of

British Columbia history is the Hudson’s Bay Company’s Beaver,

1835. BC Ferries, remarkable in its growth as the largest fleet of its

type in the world, links communities on the inland coasts and islands

of British Columbia.

On land, the principal means of hauling freight in early days of

colonization was by horse, cart, and wagon. The heaviest freight was

hauled by oxen, and a noted feature of southern Ontario’s historical

geography is that public houses are spaced six miles apart, the dis-

tance oxen could haul before needing drinking water. The roads were

invariably primitive, and Governor John Graves Simcoe mapped out

the major arterials, including “the King’s Highway,” and his colonial

administration put in place the surveying standards and dimensions

for single family farms. Not until provincial roads and highways ad-

ministrations began to lay out and pave major arterials in the 1920s

did any jurisdiction have a highway system. Good Roads societies,

common in the United States, were active in Canada, pressing upon

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402 • TRANSPORTATION

administrations the need for better, safer roads. There was no federal

authority for road building. National highways such as Number 1

TransCanada and 16 Yellowhead are a later result, depending always

on provincial governments as partners. Canada has never had an in-

terstate highway system. This is seen by many road users as an over-

sight, for it pushes trade as well as road transportation south into the

United States, so that east-west access on the American interstates

can be used. By 1949, Number 1 TransCanada was a reality.

But the major cause of commercial expansion and settlers’ occu-

pation of land was the railway. Small railways came into existence

in many British North American jurisdictions, including Prince Ed-

ward Island, but the promise of an Inter-Colonial Railway became

one of the enabling provisions that led to confederation in 1867. In a

real sense, railways were the steel of empire. By the City of London’s

guaranteeing of bonds on the public credit, a major obstacle was

overcome. Now Halifax could be connected to Montréal, and then

to Toronto, and then to Chicago, the hub of the American Midwest,

where Canadian trade had potential growth. The completion of this

system by 1870 raised the power and profit of Canadian ports, par-

ticularly Saint John (New Brunswick) and Halifax. It also promoted

imperial defense and imperial loyalty.

The promise of liquidating Prince Edward Island’s large railway

debt was one of the reasons that jurisdiction was induced to ac-

cept terms of confederation in 1873. British Columbia’s union with

Canada in 1871 was partly due to the promise of an intercolonial

railway to the Pacific and connection to the naval base at Esquimalt,

Vancouver Island, a subject of persistent political difficulty in the

actual execution. A dockyard was also promised for Esquimalt. This

was completed in 1876. The Canadian Pacific Railway, an amazing

feat of private capital and public support, was completed to Pacific

tidewater, at Port Moody, in late 1885. Transcontinental rail service

began the following year, and soon Vancouver became the terminus,

blessed as it was with a great port.

Other transcontinental railways were planned or developed dur-

ing the railway mania that swept the country during the years that

Wilfrid Laurier was prime minister, 1896–1911. The Grand Trunk

Pacific was one. Begun in 1905 and completed in 1914, it linked

Winnipeg with Kaien Island, near the new town and port of Prince

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TRANSPORTATION • 403

Rupert, crossing the Rocky Mountains at the Yellowhead Pass. The

last spike was driven near Fort Fraser, west of Prince George. The

Canadian Northern Railway was another transcontinental railway,

running west from Winnipeg to Vancouver. A pre-war depression in

world trade, a decline in expected settlers, inadequate land sales, and

fiscal disruptions because of World War I all led to financial disas-

ters. It fell to the administration of Robert Borden to consolidate the

last two under the nationalized railway system known as the Cana-

dian National Railways, the precursor of the private railway company

Canadian National Railways, which trades under the name CNRail.

Both CPR and CNRail developed trucking subsidiaries. For pas-

senger service, the Canadian government-sponsored Via Rail came

into existence. It maintains a nondaily transcontinental service,

and a fast service in the corridor between Windsor, Ontario, and

Québec City. The Government of Canada further provides some

of the rolling stock for grains, fuels, and minerals. It also assists in

building port infrastructure, for instance at Churchill, Manitoba,

on Hudson Bay. Container port facilities at Prince Rupert, British

Columbia, also demonstrate government investment and develop-

ment—and a commitment to shortening the Great Circle route of

trade to Asian ports.

Numerous small airlines came into existence at the outset of the air

age in the 1920s. The airplane helped to open the Canadian north. It

was also important in the surveying of Canada, with techniques intro-

duced by Col. Gerry Andrews, a veteran of World War I. Float and

ski planes were necessary in northern travel, and rescue and medical

services were introduced to rural persons. The rise of American air-

lines naturally led to a Canadian response to protect Canadian busi-

ness in passenger and freight by air. Trans-Canada Airlines came into

existence in 1937, a Canadian government initiative. It was renamed,

by act of Parliament in 1965, Air Canada, and then subsequently

was privatized. Successive privately owned airlines, WARDAIR and

Canadian Airlines International among them, fell under the control

of Air Canada. By 1987, it had become a global giant. WestJet, how-

ever, and several charter airlines continue operating in the private

sector. The federal government builds and operates nearly all of the

airports serving scheduled flights, and controls the means of monitor-

ing and directing flights.

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404 • TREATY OF GHENT

Advances relating to transportation are headed up by satellite

communications and computer operations, and in this connection

Canadian developments in space technology are noteworthy. See

also SAILING SHIPS.

TREATY OF GHENT. See GHENT, TREATY OF.

TREATY OF PARIS. See PARIS, TREATY OF.

TREATY OF ST. GERMAIN-EN-LAYE. See ST. GERMAIN-

EN-LAYE, TREATY OF.

TREATY OF UTRECHT. See UTRECHT, TREATY OF.

TROIS-RIVIÈRES. Founded in 1634, Trois-Rivières is the second

oldest French city in the Province of Québec. As a frontier post,

it served as a rampart against Iroquois invasion and as a center of

trade with the enemies of the Iroquois, the Huron, who brought

furs down the St. Maurice River from the Great Lakes and inte-

rior. It was also the departure point for a number of legendary

explorers: Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, one of the first to see the

Rocky Mountains; Pierre Esprit Radisson and Medard Chouart des

Groseilleirs, who traveled to Lake Superior and Hudson Bay; and

Father Jacques Marquette, who explored the Mississippi River. The

community owed everything to its location at the juncture of the

St. Lawrence River and the three channels—hence its name—of

the St. Maurice River, and situated halfway between Montréal

and Québec. The settlement became a major crossroads for New

France in the 1700s. Under the British regime, it became headquar-

ters of a militia district.

Location continues to play a vital role, ensuring the city’s status

as one of the world’s largest paper manufacturing centers. Trois-

Rivières has a prominent museum about this industry. The Laviolette

Bridge, the only one between Montréal and Québec, spans the river

here. Of architectural note in the city’s old section are several 18th-

century structures, on the rue des Ursulines and adjacent side streets.

The population in 2008 was 47,000.

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TRUDEAU, PIERRE ELLIOTT • 405

TRUDEAU, PIERRE ELLIOTT (1919–2000). A prime minister of

Canada born in Montréal, Trudeau was educated by the Jesuits at

College Jean de Brébeuf, then the University of Montréal, Harvard

University, and the London School of Economics. He traveled exten-

sively before he was called to the bar.

Trudeau helped found the Cité Libre, an intellectual journal that

challenged the Union Nationale government of Maurice Duplessis

in Québec. A noted essayist, in 1950 he wrote, “Let us overthrow the

totems, break the taboos. Or better, let us consider them cancelled.

Coldly, let us be intelligent.” In 1965, with Jean Marchand and Gé-

rard Pelletier (the so-called “three wise men”), Trudeau ran for the

federal Liberals, won the riding of Mount Royal, and was named

parliamentary secretary to Prime Minister Lester Pearson. In 1967,

Trudeau became minister of justice. He pushed through a major re-

form of the Criminal Code. For a new Divorce Act, he won national

attention for his remark, “the state has no place in the bedrooms of

the nation.”

With the retirement of Pearson in 1968, Trudeau was elected

leader of the Liberal Party. He became prime minister of Canada in

1968 and held the position until 1979. He failed to win popular sup-

port in western provinces: in 1968, Trudeau won 27 of 68 western

seats; in 1980, only 2 of 77. Trudeau’s style, urbanity, and intel-

ligence—unusual in most national circles—captivated some in the

nation. The press championed his style and youthful vision. In the

election, he was awarded a majority (something that Pearson, for all

his abilities, could never achieve).

In his first term, his government passed the Official Languages Act

and began, among other efforts, to give Canada a truly bilingual pub-

lic service. During the October Crisis in 1970, Trudeau implemented

the War Measures Act after the Front de Libération du Québec kid-

napped James Cross and Pierre Laporte and murdered the latter. His

actions during the event illustrated his toughness when dealing with

separatists. His National Energy Policy alienated the west, especially

Alberta, and set back his party’s fortunes for decades.

In 1972, Trudeau won a minority of the seats in Parliament and,

in the circumstances, relied on the New Democratic Party for sup-

port in the House of Commons. Between 1972 and 1974, he passed

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406 • TSIMSHIAN

popular legislation that encouraged free spending within the govern-

ment. In 1974, he won a majority due to his free-spending legislation.

Soaring inflation forced Trudeau’s government to impose wage and

price controls. The economic crisis was compounded by the election

of René Lévesque’s Parti Québecois (PQ) over Robert Bourassa’s

Liberals in Québec in 1976. Levesque’s separatist government was a

direct challenge to Trudeau.

In 1979, Trudeau’s government lost to Joe Clark’s Progressive

Conservatives. Trudeau resigned from politics, but before a leader-

ship convention could be held, Clark’s government was defeated

in the House of Commons. Clark’s miscalculation saved Trudeau.

Trudeau led the Liberals to victory in 1980 with a majority. In office,

Trudeau intervened in the Québec Referendum of May 1980 and

contributed largely to the defeat of the PQ’s sovereignty-association

proposals. In 1982, he managed to secure provincial consent, except

for Québec, for the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and

the patriation of the constitution in the Constitution Act of 1982. In

1984, Trudeau retired from office.

Trudeau has been portrayed as enigmatic. His confidence was

often misjudged as arrogance. His flamboyance and stunts were

said to have been staged and rehearsed. He stands out as a loner,

a gunslinger. Marshall McLuhan saw Trudeau’s mask as that of

warrior chief. His Memoir (1993) revealed little of his inner self;

critics regarded it as crass commercial opportunism. His legacy is

that he was the architect of federal bilingualism, father of the Char-

ter of Rights and Freedoms, fixer of the patriation of the Canadian

constitution (that is, from Westminster to Ottawa), and spokesperson

for his unique view of a strong Canadian nationalism under a federal

structure (and thus a strong central government).

TSIMSHIAN. The Tsimshian people were divided into three groups:

the Tsimshian proper, located around the mouth of the Skeena River,

British Columbia; the Gitxsan, located farther up the Skeena River;

and the Nisga’a, who inhabited the basin of the Nass River. All three

groups spoke dialects of the Tsimshian language. The Tsimshian

were quick to adapt to the fur trade, and Tsimshian society changed

after contact with the European fur traders. In 1862, the tribe experi-

enced a severe smallpox epidemic. This epidemic, coupled with the

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UKRAINIANS • 407

challenge to the social balance that the fur trade was inflicting upon

the tribe, almost destroyed the Tsimshian. Many became Christian

under Anglican lay missionary William Duncan at Metlakatla, and

some sought refuge in Alaska in 1887. See also INDIANS.

TUPPER, CHARLES (1821–1915). A Halifax-born physician and

Nova Scotia premier (1864–67), Sir Charles Tupper promoted con-

federation against the opposition of Joseph Howe. He became prime

minister, briefly in 1896, committed the Conservatives to remedial

legislation in the Manitoba Schools Act (not effected), and was

leader of the opposition to 1900.

TYRRELL, JOSEPH BURR (1858–1957). A geologist, historian, and

mining engineer, Tyrrell conducted studies during several expedi-

tions in northwestern Canada that aided the development of the Ca-

nadian mining industry. Born in Weston, Ontario, near Toronto, he

graduated from the University of Toronto and joined the Geological

Survey of Canada. Near Drumheller, Alberta, Tyrrell discovered

the first dinosaur bones ever found in Canada. Shortly afterward, he

discovered one of the nation’s largest coal deposits nearby. During

1893 and 1894, Tyrrell traveled from Lake Athabasca across the

barren lands of the Northwest Territories to Hudson Bay. Tyrrell

mapped the region and predicted correctly that minerals there would

greatly increase Canada’s wealth.

Tyrrell left the Geological Survey of Canada in 1898 and became

a mining engineer and manager. He joined the Kirkland Lake Gold

Mining Company in 1924 and served as president of the firm from

1931 until his death. Tyrrell wrote many articles about geology and

exploration in Canada and edited the journals of fur trader Samuel

Hearne, surveyor Philip Turnor, and geographer David Thompson,

all published by the Champlain Society.

– U –

UKRAINIANS. The Ukrainian community is one of the largest eth-

nic groups in Canada. In the western provinces, it forms large ma-

jorities of the population—in Manitoba, for instance, comprising 25

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408 • UNDERGROUND RAILROAD

percent. Ukrainian immigration to Canada began in the early 1890s

and increased dramatically toward the end of that decade. They

settled mainly in the prairie agricultural belt. Overpopulation, ex-

cessive land subdivision, hopeless economic conditions, and politi-

cal, social, and religious oppression were mainly responsible for the

migration to Canada. Ukrainians were encouraged by Minister of the

Interior Clifford Sifton’s immigration policy promising free land.

Under the War Measures Act during World War I, about 5,000

Ukrainian men of Austro-Hungarian citizenship were kept in intern-

ment camps and related work sites. Another 80,000 Ukrainians were

registered as “enemy aliens.” A second wave of Ukrainian immi-

grants came to Canada in the 1920s and 1930s as political refugees.

A third movement followed World War II, beginning in 1946.

Although there have been numerous achievements by individual

Ukrainian Canadians, the most important contribution was their pio-

neer work in opening up the Canadian west. Many settled on poor

land and struggled to make it productive. They persevered through

years of drought and frigid temperatures, living in sod houses.

Since their arrival in Canada, they have established their own re-

ligious institutions, including institutes and colleges, and maintained

aspects of cultural life derived from old homelands. Moreover,

they have become a powerful force in the professions, an agency

in multiculturalism. The Ukrainian Civil Liberties Association is an

independent group dedicated to the articulation and defense of the

community’s interests. On 24 August 2005, Prime Minister Paul

Martin recognized the Ukrainian internment in World War I as a

“dark chapter” in Canadian history. The first Ukrainian to be elected

to the House of Commons was the teacher Michael Luchkovich,

running for the United Farmers in 1926 in the Vegreville, Alberta,

riding. Ed Stelmach of that same province became the first premier

of Ukrainian descent in 2006. It is estimated that more than 1 million

Canadians are of Ukrainian stock.

UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. The underground railroad was a

clandestine network of sympathetic abolitionists, refuges, and routes

for fugitive slaves to travel into the northern free states in America or

to Canada, especially Chatham, in southwest Ontario. Dating from

1786, it was strongest in the 1850s and 1860s. Freedom seekers es-

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UNDERHILL, FRANK HAWKINS • 409

caped enslavement in the United States, then traveled from one secret

safe house to another. It has been estimated that of 4 million slaves

in the United States before the end of the Civil War, 40,000 made it

to Canada (after the Civil War, 20,000 returned to the United States).