Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada

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390 • STOWE, EMILY JENNINGS

STOWE, EMILY JENNINGS (1831–1903). An educator and doctor,

Stowe was born in Norwich, Ontario, attended teachers’ college in

Toronto, and became the first woman principal in Canada. With

the illness of her husband, she decided to attended medical school

to obtain a better job to offset the cost of hospital bills. She was

not admitted by the University of Toronto and instead attended the

New York Medical College for Women. In 1867, she received her

degree, moved to Toronto, and became the first Canadian woman

doctor to practice medicine in Canada. In 1877, Stowe organized the

first women’s rights group in Canada to lobby against laws unfair

to women. The group became the Toronto Women’s Suffrage As-

sociation. In 1883, her daughter, Augusta, became the first woman to

receive a degree in medicine in Canada. Today, many rights of Cana-

dian women were a result of the efforts of Dr. Emily Jennings Stowe.

STRACHAN, JOHN (1778–1867). The first Anglican bishop of Toronto

(1839–67), Strachan was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, and educated at

Aberdeen and St. Andrews universities, arriving in Upper Canada in

1799 to take charge of a school projected by Governor John Graves

Simcoe. Strachan took orders in the Church of England in 1803. His

high-church leanings were suitably Tory and shaped establishment

thinking. He became one of the pillars of the Executive Council and

Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada but left both by 1841. Mean-

while, he had become one of the Family Compact, the dominant clique

running the Province of Upper Canada. In 1827, Strachan became the

first president of King’s College, Toronto. When this was reorganized

as the University of Toronto (1850), he ceased his connection, founding

the University of Trinity College, Toronto (1851).

SUEZ CRISIS. A major event in the history of Canadian, foreign

policy, the Suez Crisis emerged when Egypt, under its president,

Gamal Abdel Nasser, expropriated and nationalized the Suez Canal

Company, hitherto an Anglo-French company. When diplomacy

failed, France and Great Britain launched a plan with Israel in which

Israel attacked Egypt to regain the canal, and then France and Britain

intervened to “stabilize” the situation. At first, Canada did not “con-

demn” the intervention, only “regretted” it. Canadian public opinion

was greatly divided by the Suez Crisis. In fact, the British action

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TAINTED BLOOD INVESTIGATION • 391

severely split Commonwealth opinion on the matter, for hitherto

consultation in advance of action (an understood technique of intra-

imperial diplomacy) had been the rule.

At the United Nations, the Anglo-French intervention was

looked on as a violation of the UN Charter. Canada voted with the

United States against Britain and Russia in condemning the British

and French governments. Under the leadership of Lester Pearson,

secretary of state for external affairs of Canada, and of Canadian

diplomats at the UN, the UN reached a settlement and introduced a

peacekeeping force. Under command of Maj. Gen. E.L.M. Burns of

Canada, the UN Emergency Force supervised the evacuation of the

Canal Zone. The Middle East situation had been defused, if tempo-

rarily. Pearson’s leadership was much lauded at the time; he was

awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957. It is less possible to judge

the political consequences of the Suez Crisis to Canadian national

politics. Not unlikely, however, the Liberal position against Britain

(which provoked much complaint in Britain and in Canada) reduced

national trust in the Liberal Party as the ruling party. In 1957, at the

general election, the Liberals lost power to the Progressive Conser-

vative Party under John George Diefenbaker.

Canada had acted out of self-interest in the Suez Crisis. A “middle

power,” Canada backed the United States and UN against the coun-

try’s imperial ally and against France and Israel. The event may

therefore be considered a declaration of independence in foreign

affairs for Canada.

SUPREME COURT OF CANADA. Created by the Dominion Act

of 1875, the Supreme Court of Canada was promoted by Edward

Blake. Until 1949, however, the court of last resort was the Judicial

Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) in London. By the 1949 Su-

preme Court Amendment Act, the Court was reaffirmed as the final

arbiter, thus ending appeals to the JCPC.

– T –

TAINTED BLOOD INVESTIGATION. See KREVER TAINTED

BLOOD INQUIRY.

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392 • TALON, JEAN-BAPTISTE

TALON, JEAN-BAPTISTE (1625?–1694). The first intendant, or

chief administrator, of New France, Talon (Comte d’Orsainville)

served in 1665–68 and subsequently 1670–72. Educated by the

Jesuits in Paris, in about 1653 he entered the French administrative

service. On his appointment to New France in 1665 as intendant, he

was responsible for justice, administration, and finance in the colony.

With his arrival he inaugurated a period of striking development. His

energetic efforts reflected the surge of royal interest in Canada and

French overseas territories at that time. During his tenure, coloniza-

tion and immigration increased under various schemes. He fostered

the colony’s trade: he was the first to build ships in the colony, and

the first to establish a brewery. The seigneurial system likewise grew

substantially. Defense measures were taken. Working hand in hand

with the governors of the day and the clergy, he helped consolidate

the French empire of the St. Lawrence. Private affairs in France ne-

cessitated his return there in 1668, but he resumed the intendancy in

1670, then returned to France in 1672 and was appointed secrétaire

du cabinet and valet de chambre of the king. He died in Paris.

TECUMSEH (1768–1813). The Shawnee war chief Tecumseh was

a brilliant orator. Tecumseh joined his brother Tenskwatawa, “The

Prophet,” in an armed resistance against American forces at the

Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811. He was an ally of the British in the

War of 1812. Maj. Gen. Isaac Brock wrote of him: “A more saga-

cious or a more gallant warrior does not, I believe, exist.” Tecumseh

commanded native forces and fell on 5 October 1813 at the Battle of

the Thames in Upper Canada.

TELEVISION. A powerful force and medium, television has been the

major leisure activity of Canadians since its inception. It is equally

important as a means for the conveyance of news, political discus-

sion, electoral results, and world affairs. Distribution of programs

at inception was by free over-the-air telecasting but is now almost

universally undertaken by subscriber cable, satellite, and the Inter-

net. Television’s role as an instrument of social policy and nation-

building is set out in the Broadcasting Act, and other regulations

defining Canadian content quotas. The whole is regulated by the

Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission

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TELEVISION • 393

(CRTC). Advertising, both in extent and quality, is similarly regu-

lated. The whole system has been designed with a view to meeting

public needs while meeting the expectations of overseers.

In the first decade, or golden age, of Canadian TV, 1952–62,

the publicly owned Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC)

enjoyed a monopoly of network broadcasting. Separate French and

English networks were established at the outset. Newscasting began

in 1954, and the long-lasting English program Front Page Chal-

lenge began in 1957. Early comedy began with Wayne and Schuster

and popular singing with the enduring star Juliette (Sysak). Hockey

Night in Canada telecasting of National Hockey League games in

Montréal and Toronto commenced in 1952 and runs to this day. It

was not until 1962 that a Canadian private rival presented itself in the

form of CTV, the English-language Canadian Television Network.

Global, another network, was established in 1974. All three networks

remain in existence today. Always in the minds of the CRTC was

the issue of the predominance of American television, notably the

powerful networks, ABC, CBS, and NBC. Canadian networks and

independent stations were obliged to compete for market share.

The medium had a powerful influence in Québec in popular cul-

ture and in the rise of a powerful politician, René Lévesque. Given

the near monopoly that Radio-Canada had on public broadcasting,

the choices available to French-speaking Canadians were few and

far between. That there was only one French-language TV channel

meant that all francophones growing up in Québec shared a single

TV culture. It was in these circumstances that Lévesque came to the

fore. Previously only on radio, in 1957 he was given a weekly show,

Pointe de mire (Focal Point). For many Québecers, it was their first

window on the world. The program gave him celebrity status and

launched him on a political career. It was, too, a force in the pro-

cess known as the Quiet Revolution, with Lévesque as the first lay

preacher.

A dazzling array of choices now presents itself to the Canadian

viewing audience. Diversification rules. The introduction of cable

television cut into CBC’s market as it did those of independent

Canadian stations. As of 1984, some 65 percent of all programs

watched were of foreign (overwhelmingly American) provenance.

This remains much the same today. Specialty channels of note that

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394 • TEMPERANCE

fall outside of the customary types (such as History, Food, Home and

Garden) include the Canadian Public Affairs Channel (CPAC) and

the Aboriginal Network.

TEMPERANCE. A movement with parallels in Great Britain, the

United States, and elsewhere, temperance urged society to control or

cease consumption of alcoholic beverages. The temperance move-

ment was an organized response to the social disruption caused by

alcoholism. Legal prohibition was made possible by the Canada

Temperance Act of 1878, giving local governments the right to pro-

hibit, by vote, retail sale of alcohol. The first temperance societies

were founded in Pictou, Nova Scotia, and Montréal. A Canadian

counterpart of the Women’s Christian Temperance Union was

founded by Letitia Youmans of Picton, Ontario, in 1874. Prohibition

was instituted in Prince Edward Island, Québec, and elsewhere, but

bootlegging and exports of Canadian liquors to the United States con-

tinued. Government control of liquor sales was eventually introduced

and prohibition was suspended.

TERRORISM. See ANTI-TERRORISM ACT.

THANADELTHUR (1697–1717). The interpreter and guide Tha-

nadelthur was a member of the Chipewyan nation who in 1713

was captured by some Cree. She managed to escape with another

Chipewyan woman, who eventually died, but Thanadelthur reached

York Factory, a Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) trading post.

There, she learned English and became an interpreter between the

Chipewyan and the fur traders. She joined a peace expedition into

Chipewyan territory with fur traders and Cree members. After fail-

ing to find members of the Chipewyan tribe, Thanadelthur left the

group and traveled alone to find her people. She managed to persuade

her people to talk peace with the Cree, bringing peace between the

Chipewyan and Cree tribes. As well, she encouraged fur trading be-

tween the Chipewyan nation and the HBC.

THEATER. From the beginning of colonization, Canada has had

theater, and rural and town productions have always been a feature

of national life. Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice was performed

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THEATER • 395

by the Halifax garrison in 1789, opening in a purpose-built house.

Drama lovers built theaters, but in many cases productions thrived

in church halls and basements. The 19th century saw continuous

growth. In the first two decades of the 20th century, a heyday came,

but by 1930 the bubble had burst. Productions were costly, the Great

Depression occurred, and film was starting to draw away crowds.

Journalist B. K. Sandwell bemoaned the Americanization of Cana-

dian theater in his periodical Saturday Night. Professional theater

disappeared from Canada for 30 years.

Notable amateur productions were staged by the Little Theater

Movement, which received a boost from school productions. This

led to the highly significant Dominion Drama Festival (1933), which

promoted local, then regional, then national finals. The festival was

renamed Theater Canada in 1978, and its survivor organizations are

one of Canada’s most successful cultural undertakings. It has re-

sisted movies and many other challenges from other cultural modes.

Plays in French and in English, from one-act to three-act plays by

Canadians and non-Canadians, all produced and acted by amateurs,

have met annually in a furious competition. This spawned numerous

professional players but also created many local talents and small

companies, amateur and semiprofessional.

In 1953, the Stratford Shakespeare Festival, in Stratford, Ontario,

launched an ambitious project—theater under a tent. The intention

was to establish a first-class professional theater. For a small Ontario

town to do this had many risks. In 1966, a magnificent 2,200 seat

theater opened, drawing top British, Canadian, and American actors

and directors. Niagara on the Lake, Ontario, followed with the Shaw

Festival, also with a purpose-built house. The Canada Council has

been a remarkable support of these and other ventures. The Manitoba

Theater Center, with a winter session in Winnipeg, and the National

Arts Center, Ottawa, are but two of the locations of significance.

Victoria, British Columbia, has Langham Court and the Belfry.

Gilbert and Sullivan Societies exist in many Canadian cities. The

prevalence of musicals in high school productions speaks to the

remarkable endurance of West End and Broadway creative genius.

The continuing interest in theater has resulted in some remarkable

architectural achievements. Among those theaters renovated from

decrepitude are the former Pantages Theater in Victoria, now

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396 • THOMPSON, DAVID

Macpherson Theater, and Prince of Wales Theater (by Ed Murvish)

in Toronto. Garth Drabinski, a noted producer of musicals in To-

ronto, embarked on all too ambitious schemes that led to legal trou-

ble. Radio and television adaptations by the Canadian Broadcast-

ing Corporation have been outlets for professional Canadian theater

talents in a professional environment. The Association for Canadian

Theater History was founded in 1976, and numerous bibliographies,

compilations, and histories have been written about the subject.

THOMPSON, DAVID (1770–1857). A fur trader, surveyor, and geog-

rapher, Thompson was born in London, England. He was apprenticed

to the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1784 and sent to Churchill. He

learned surveying while mending a broken leg. He surveyed territory

between Cumberland House and York Factory and to Lake Atha-

basca. In 1797, Thompson entered the service of the North West

Company (NWC). He found a source of the Mississippi, and later

discovered the headwaters of the Saskatchewan River. In 1799, he

married Charlotte Small, a Métis woman; they had 16 children.

In 1804, Thompson became a partner in the NWC, and in 1807 he

crossed the Rockies and built Kootenay House, the first fur trading

post on the Columbia River. He surveyed the Columbia and Koote-

nay rivers, but trade obligations and difficulties of travel delayed his

arrival at his ultimate objective, the mouth of the Columbia, until 15

July 1811. Thus, when he reached the Pacific, he found Americans at

Astoria. He was the first to travel the full length of the great river of

the West and the first to map its course with any accuracy. Thompson

River, a large southern tributary of the Fraser River, was named after

him by his friend Simon Fraser.

In 1812, Thompson left the fur trading interior forever. He settled

at Williamstown, Ontario, near Montréal, and prepared for the

NWC a great map of western Canada (now in the Ontario Archives).

For the International Boundary Commission, he surveyed the

Canada-United States boundary from Saint-Regis, Québec, to the

northwest corner of Lake of the Woods. He died in poverty at Lon-

gueuil, near Montréal.

Thompson ranks among the great geographer-explorers and car-

tographers. His North American travels covered 80,460 kilometers by

canoe, horse, and foot. He mapped routes through more than 2.7 mil-

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TILLEY, SAMUEL LEONARD • 397

lion kilometers of Canada and the United States. His maps were pre-

cise, reflecting his persistent and methodical surveys. He had a high

opinion of himself, and he often thought himself the victim of circum-

stance and of neglect by his seniors. Through his labors, he unlocked

to science and cartography the secrets of two great river systems, the

Saskatchewan and the Columbia. His account, now referred to as his

Travels, was completed in 1850. Of inestimable value to scholarship,

the work constitutes one of the great narratives, of exploration, tell-

ing as it does so much about geography and natives of western and

northern North America. See also MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER.

TILLEY, SAMUEL LEONARD (1818–1896). A New Brunswick

supporter of confederation and subsequently lieutenant governor of

the province, Sir Samuel Tilley was born in Gagetown, of Loyalist

parents. He was a Conservative, and in due course became a stout

supporter of John A. Macdonald. His first career was as a drug-

gist, but he was drawn into provincial politics. He was a bold and

thrusting fellow, active in the temperance movement. He became

provincial secretary in 1854. At the time of the debates on the con-

federation of British North America, he showed little interest in the

alternative proposition known as maritime union. He had larger mat-

ters on his mind, notably the promotion of what became the Inter-

colonial Railway, backed by London finance. As Canadian minister

of finance, 1879, he brought in the National Policy tariff. He retired

from politics in 1885 and died in Saint John, one of the last of the

pro-confederationists who had passed also through the age of consti-

tutional reform of the mid-Victorian British Empire of which New

Brunswick was a part.

TIPPETT, MARIA (1944– ). A cultural historian, biographer, and cu-

rator, Tippett was born in Victoria, British Columbia, and educated

at Victoria High School. After two-and-a-half years in Germany,

she entered Simon Fraser University, where she studied European

history. Changing her focus to cultural history, she produced, with

the historian Douglas Cole, the first study of landscape painting in

British Columbia. Published in 1977, From Desolation to Splendour:

Changing Perceptions of the British Columbia Landscape received

the BC Book Award. Tippett then wrote Emily Carr: A Biography

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398 • TORONTO

(1979), which received a Governor General’s Award for nonfiction.

In 1980, Tippett received a doctorate from the University of London.

Her books Art at the Service of War: Canada, Art, and the Great War

(1984), Making Culture: Canadian Institutions and the Arts Before

the Massey Commission (1989), and By a Lady: Celebrating Three

Centuries of Canadian Women Artists (1992) brought her skills as a

historian and art historian together. But it is as a biographer that Tip-

pett is best known. In addition to her book on Emily Carr, she has

written Stormy Weather: F. H. Varley (1998), Bill Reid: The Making

of an Indian (2003), which received the Hubert Evans Book Prize in

2003, and Portrait in Light and Shadow: The Life of Yousuf Karsh

(2007). She has won many honors for her writing.

Convinced that cultural historians should reach an audience be-

yond the academy, Tippett has been a television presenter for the

Canadian Broadcasting Corporation and England’s Channel 4 in

documentaries dealing with art and war and with Emily Carr. She

has curated many exhibitions, of which Lest We Forget (1989) is the

best known. She has been a supporter of the Canadian Historical

Review (1985–88), Canadian Art (1986–88), and Canada Founda-

tion, in England (1998–2005). She is also a senior research fellow at

Cambridge University.

TORONTO. The capital of Ontario, Toronto originated in a post

established by the French. In 1793, Lt. Gov. John Graves Simcoe

called the place York, and it became the capital of Upper Canada

in 1794. It was renamed Toronto when it was incorporated as a

city in 1834. Metropolitan Toronto includes Toronto, North York,

Scarborough, York, Etobicoke, and East York but does not include

Mississauga.

Location gave it its role in the developing economy of Upper

Canada. From the beginning, Simcoe recognized its military value

and strategic focus, important in the province’s defense against U.S.

aggression. Major arterial roads ran to and from Toronto, prominent

among which were Dundas Street and Yonge Street, the latter among

the longest in the world (it runs north, with links to Lake Simcoe and

Georgian Bay). By 1812, only 700 persons lived in the city, but its

political and administrative importance was insured. During the War

of 1812, it was twice raided and pillaged by U.S. forces, leaving anti-

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TORONTO • 399

American viewpoints in the populace most important to the further

direction of Canadian national attitudes. Immigration from Great

Britain spurred Toronto’s growth, and by 1834 it had over 9,000

inhabitants. William Lyon Mackenzie was its first mayor.

Banking, industrial development, government administration, col-

legiate and higher education, publishing, and ecclesiastical affairs

all were central to its rise to prominence. Toronto was also home

to some of Canada’s early unions and radicalism. Farm machinery

and railway-related industries were particularly prominent. In 1911,

hydroelectricity from Niagara Falls provided cheap energy, further

stimulating economic growth. World War I necessitated great growth

of meat packing and bacon production; it also encouraged clothes and

munitions production. In World War II, aircraft production increased

dramatically. By 1951, Toronto had over 1 million residents.

Toronto’s transportation links were key to its rise to Canadian

prominence. All major freight and passenger railways served it, and

all Canadian transcontinental passenger trains called at Union Station

(1927). Today VIA and AMTRAC service Toronto. The St. Law-

rence Seaway brings merchant shipping, especially relating to grains

and milling, to Toronto Port, regulated by a commission. The To-

ronto Transit Commission (1953) developed tram and underground

services, later exporting some of these innovative technologies. GO

Transit developed rail and bus commuter services for urban-outlying

communities. Toronto’s financial primacy in Canada was aided by

the establishment of the Toronto Stock Exchange.

Toronto had a large Irish immigration in the 1850s, both Protes-

tant and Roman Catholic. English and Scottish immigration contin-

ued in the late 19th century and after. Jews, Italians, and Ukrainians

arrived in significant numbers at the turn of the century; Germans,

Poles, Hungarians, Balkan Slavs, Greeks, and Portuguese came in the

1970s. Suburbanization and increasing housing density began in the

1950s and continued undiminished thereafter. Throughout, Chinese

and other Asians arrived. Toronto became in these years one of the

most multicultural cities in the world. By 1991, the population of

Greater Toronto neared 2.5 million. By 2006, 5.5 million lived in the

Greater Toronto area.

Institutions of prominence include the Archives of Ontario, Leg-

islative Library of the Province of Ontario, Royal Ontario Museum,

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