Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada

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380 • SPACE

Canadarm 1, Canadarm 2, and Dextre: Canadarm 1, or the Shuttle

Remote Manipulator System, was designed and built by SPAR Aero-

space for NASA’s space shuttle program, with subcontractor work

conducted by CAE Electronics and Rockwell International, among

others. The purpose of the Canadarm is to lift payloads of up to 29

tons from the shuttle’s cargo bay and place them in orbit, or a reverse

of the process. It can also be used as a mobile platform for space-

walking astronauts and, with the addition of a video camera, as a tool

for inspecting payloads or the shuttle itself. This became particularly

important after the destruction of the shuttle Columbia in 2003, and it

is now NASA policy that all shuttles will carry a Canadarm for self-

inspection purposes. A total of five Canadarm 1’s were constructed;

one was lost on the shuttle Challenger in 1986.

Canadarm 2, which is Canada’s primary contribution to the In-

ternational Space Station, is officially known as the Space Station

Remote Manipulator System. Designed and developed by MD Ro-

botics, a successor company to SPAR Aerospace, it is essentially a

larger and more complex version of Canadarm 1, with the added ca-

pability of relocating itself around the station. Canadarm 1 first flew

19 November 1981 on board Columbia. Canadarm 2 was launched

to the International Space Station and installed with the assistance of

Canadian astronaut Chris Hadfield on board Endeavor in 2001.

Dextre, officially known as the Special Purpose Dextrous Manipu-

lator and also known as the “Canada Hand,” is a two-armed robot that

can be attached to the end of Canadarm 2. It is designed to perform

tasks that would otherwise require spacewalks. Like Canadarm 2, it

was designed and built by MD Robotics. It was launched in 2008.

Human Spaceflight: The Canadian Astronaut Program, which led

to Canadian participation is NASA’s manned space program, actu-

ally predates the formation of the Canadian Space Agency. The first

six Canadian astronauts were selected from 4,000 applicants by the

National Research Council in 1983, with Commander Marc Garneau

of the Canadian Navy becoming the first to actually launch into

space, in 1984. Between 1984 and 2008, eight Canadian astronauts,

including two women, have participated in a total of 13 manned space

missions, all on board NASA space shuttles. Air Force Colonel Chris

Hadfield was the first Canadian to conduct a spacewalk, in 2001.

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SPACE • 381

MOST: The Microvariability and Oscillations of Stars telescope

(MOST) is Canada’s first and only space telescope, launched in

2003. Developed by the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) in coopera-

tion with Dynacon Enterprises, the University of Toronto, and the

University of British Columbia, MOST cost less than $10 million

and is the size of a suitcase, making it the smallest space telescope

yet developed. Despite this, it has made several important discoveries

and continues to aid astronomers in the study of the stars.

New Scientific and Hybrid Satellites: Three additional programs

with scientific applications are SCISAT-1, CASSIOPE, and the

Canadian Advanced Nanospace Experiment Program (CANXP).

SCISAT-1 was designed and built by the CSA and Bristol Aerospace

of Winnipeg to perform a number of scientific functions, including

the measurement of the chemical composition of the atmosphere. It

was launched in 2003. CASSIOPE (Cascade, Smallsat, and Iono-

spheric Polar Explorer) is unique in Canadian space development in

that it is a hybrid scientific/commercial satellite. CSA is not the lead

agency on the project, that role being assumed by the Institute for

Space Research at the University of Calgary. The scientific portion of

CASSIOPE will study the effect of solar storms on the atmosphere—

including the aurora borealis. The commercial side of the project will

see the satellite equipped with a communications package allowing

customers to upload information from a small unit in one part of the

world and have it securely downloaded by another station in another

part of the world no more than 90 minutes later. The vehicle, con-

structed by Bristol Aerospace in Winnipeg, was launched in 2008.

Space Agencies: The CSA was founded under the terms of the

Canadian Space Agency Act (1989). It assumed control of all Ca-

nadian government space programs from the National Research

Council, and it is headquartered at the John H. Chapman Space

Center in Saint-Hubert, Québec. The David Florida Laboratory, in

Shirley Bay, Ontario, is where most space research, manufacture,

and testing are conducted, and was inherited by CSA from the De-

fense Research Board. The former rocket launch site at Churchill,

Manitoba, was not taken over by CSA. Despite significant invest-

ment by private companies to return it to operation as a commercial

venture in the 1990s, by 1998 the site was abandoned.

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382 • SPANISH CIVIL WAR

SPANISH CIVIL WAR. See MACKENZIE-PAPINEAU BATTAL-

ION.

SPORT. In all ages of modern Canada’s history, sport has played an

important role. Sport a national preoccupation, a national pastime,

and a daily subject of discussion. In addition, the organization of

sport competitions has had a profound impact on the physical infra-

structures of Montréal, Toronto, Ottawa, Québec City, Winnipeg,

Calgary, Edmonton, Vancouver, and Victoria—as well as many

other cities and towns.

How sport developed in Canada is of importance to the study of

the national history. Sport was a force in building a national ethos.

Championships acquired became national achievements, especially

against rival nation-states and even ideologies. Games and sport

generally are forces of social integration and community building;

in consequence, Canadian schools, colleges, and universities have

stressed athletic and sport events, and prided themselves on great

teams of the past and present.

Canada’s national game is lacrosse, a native (or aboriginal) inven-

tion, noted in the various fur trade and traveler narratives. Mohawk

lacrosse star Ross Powless called lacrosse “the game the Creator

gave us.” It is pleasing to note that Canada (itself a native name of

community, or houses clustered together) should have adopted a

native game for its national sport. But a national sport may not be

the most well-known national athletic or sporting activity. Hockey,

generally regarded as the Canadian game of choice, has flourished in

Canada and had a period of great growth in the 20th century.

Canada was part of the British Empire for many years, so it is

natural that British games took root in Canada. The most prominent

is rugby, played variously across the country, but less so than Ca-

nadian football (that is, the Canadian variant of American football).

Rugby in Canada conforms to the classic rules of British and interna-

tional rugby and has never followed Australian or Rugby League (an

English variant) rules. Rugby was instituted in Canada by military

and naval forces and was developed by public and private school-

teachers. In some cities of Canada, school superintendents (such as

John Gough of the Greater Victoria School Board) refused as late as

1960 to introduce Canadian football (again the variant of American

football) in public schools on the grounds of its expense, or its more

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SPORT • 383

dangerous format (leading to more numerous injuries). By contrast,

in some communities such as Vancouver, rugby and Canadian foot-

ball developed side by side.

Another sport introduced from England was cricket, which had in

the early years of colonial development a great following—but one

that lessened with the growing popularity of softball and baseball.

West Indian and Indian/Pakistani immigration helped give cricket a

new lease on life in the 1960s and 1970s. In short, rugby and cricket

have long histories in Canada, even though these sports are the pre-

occupation of a devoted few. Much the same could be said of what

is known in Canada as grass hockey (thus differentiating it from ice

hockey). Soccer (the English “football”) has a wider following and

a longer history.

Beginning in the 1970s, baseball became a national spectator pre-

occupation, and Canada’s two Major League Baseball franchises, the

Montréal Expos of the National League and the Toronto Blue Jays

of the American League, had large followings. The Expos left Mon-

tréal. Long before such premier professional teams came to Canada,

excellent baseball and softball teams, whether amateur, semiprofes-

sional, or professional, existed in Canada. Softball, for instance, is a

major preoccupation in some cities, including Victoria. Little League

Baseball, introduced in the 1950s, has had a strong following in most

Canadian cities.

Football, especially the Canadian variant of American football,

which has a wider and longer field and a 12th player on each side,

has a large professional and amateur following. It is characterized

by a strong aerial game, owing to the fact that there are only three

“downs” rather than four (the ball must be advanced 10 yards without

penalty to get a first down).

Other sports of prominence include curling, golf, and tennis. In

addition, there are skating, skiing, bobsledding, and numerous other

individual and team activities of competition.

When Canadians think sport, however, they think hockey. Harsh-

ness of climate, availability of outdoor ice, and the ethos of the game

all contributed to national possession of the sport, and even obses-

sion. It has no rival for affection, from young or old, male or female.

Lord Stanley, the governor general in 1888–93, donated a cup for

the national championship—and it has since become emblematic of

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384 • SPORT

professional hockey’s highest prize. The Stanley Cup was first

played for in 1893, and the Allan Cup, emblematic of amateur cham-

pionship, in 1908. The Memorial Cup is the prize of Junior hockey.

In the early 20th century, the Stanley Cup was a Canadian champi-

onship and was won by such unlikely teams as the Victoria Cougars.

In later years, hockey went “north and south,” including American

teams in the major league, the National Hockey League (NHL).

Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the Stanley Cup was fought for by

Toronto, Montréal, Chicago, Detroit, New York, and Boston. Later,

with league expansion, new teams were given franchises in St. Louis

and Los Angeles, for example. In Canada, new NHL teams were

established in Vancouver, Calgary, and Edmonton. Québec City and

Winnipeg once had NHL teams; eventually the franchises shifted

south of the border to American cities. Another factor influencing

hockey’s change was the introduction of outstanding players from

Sweden, Finland, and Eastern Europe.

Track and field hold a special place in Canadian athletic history.

Prominent among early athletes of historical note are Percy Williams,

sprinter, who won gold at the 1928 Amsterdam Olympics; steroid-

user Ben Johnson, winner in Seoul in 1988 after his record-shattering

100 meters and then disqualified (and suspended indefinitely); and

Donovan Bailey, who won gold with his record-breaking 1996

Atlanta Olympic 100-meter dash. Canadians are less successful in

longer-distance races, though in relays (both male and female) great

successes have been achieved.

Abby Hoffman, a middle-distance runner, represented Canada at

four Olympics and later became a prominent supervisor of sports

services for the Ontario Ministry of Culture and Recreation and

also director general of Sports Canada. She actively campaigned

for women’s and girls’ sports, particularly athletics and fitness pro-

grams. She was, too, a champion for gender equity in sports.

Canada hosted the British Empire Games in Vancouver in 1954, at

which the “miracle mile” was won by Roger Bannister of England.

The Commonwealth Games were held in Victoria in 1994. Canada

has hosted the 15th Winter Olympics in Calgary (1988), the Sum-

mer Olympics in Montréal (1976), and the 21st Winter Olympics in

Vancouver (2010).

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STACEY, CHARLES PERRY • 385

Golf remains one of Canada’s great sports or recreations. The

game is regulated by the Royal Canadian Golf Association, head-

quartered in Oakville, Ontario, at Glen Abbey Golf Club, where the

Canadian Open is frequently played. Older courses in Canada include

Royal Montréal (est. 1873, the oldest golf club in North America),

Royal Ottawa, and Victoria Golf Club. Included in the greats of

golf architecture are Stanley Thompson, who designed Kitchener

Westmount, and A. Maccan, the Victoria Golf Club. Golf clubs were

sometimes established by garrison social societies (e.g., the Royal

United Services Club of Victoria established Uplands Golf Club).

Prominent golf champions of Canadian history are Vancouver’s Stan

Leonard (professional), Kitchener’s Gary Cowan (amateur, senior

professional), and Brights Grove’s Mike Weir (professional). In

2007, Alison Murdoch, Victoria Golf Club, tied the record of win-

ning four Canadian Women’s Senior titles (with Marlene Stewart

Streit and Gail Borthwick).

Canada’s greatest golf legend is Marlene Stewart Streit, many-

time winner of the Canadian and U.S. amateur championships. In

2004, she was elected to the World Hall of Fame of Golf. Of an ear-

lier time is Ada Mackenzie (1918–71), regarded by many as the first

woman of Canadian golf, who for half a century dominated Ontario

and Canadian women’s golf (and promoted women’s golf fashion).

Other women prominent in Canadian sport are Barbara Ann Scott, a

figure skating champion; Marilyn Bell, a long-distance swimmer who

completed crossings of Lake Ontario and the Strait of Juan de Fuca;

and Nancy Greene, a downhill skier who was the first to profit widely

from financial investments, endorsements, and public appearances.

STACEY, CHARLES PERRY (1906–1989). A historian and soldier,

Stacey was educated at Toronto, Oxford, and Princeton universities.

He wrote many little-known articles on the War of 1812 and on Ca-

nadian defense; he was an expert on government-military relations

in Canada and the British Empire. Colonel Stacey became an army

official historian and later director of the Canadian Army Historical

Section in 1945. In his time, he was considered the foremost practi-

tioner in the field of Canadian military history in Canada. His tren-

chant, well-researched works include Canada and the British Army

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386 • STAEBLER, EDNA CRESS

(1939) and Canada and the Age of Conflict in two volumes (1977,

1981). His memoirs are entitled A Date with History (1983).

STAEBLER, EDNA CRESS (1906–2006). A journalist, author, and

benefactor, Staebler was born in Berlin (later Kitchener), Ontario,

and educated at public schools. She spent all spare hours in the

Kitchener Public Library, then went to study arts at the University of

Toronto (BA 1929). After her marriage ended, she made her winter-

ized cottage at Sunfish Lake, Ontario, her writing-home. There she

befriended literary aspirants, publishers, editors, and noted authors.

Her award-winning article on swordfishing attracted much attention

in Maclean’s Magazine in 1948. Her passion for writing and people

shone forth in Cape Breton Harbour. Her books on Mennonite cook-

ing, including Food That Really Schmecks (1968), had landslide ap-

peal. Staebler’s generous benefactions to Wilfrid Laurier University

extended her warm reach and humanity. She encouraged the literary

genre of creative nonfiction. In 1990, she initiated and endowed an

annual book prize for beginning authors on Canadian subjects or

locations.

STANFIELD, ROBERT (1914–2003). Premier of Nova Scotia for 10

years, beginning in 1956, Stanfield was the leader of the Progressive

Conservative Party in 1967. He fought three successive elections

but could never overcome Pierre Trudeau and Trudeaumania. He

was an outstanding public servant and businessman; his family busi-

ness was in undergarments, in Truro, Nova Scotia. He had great

public appeal and integrity.

STANTON, AMBROSE THOMAS (1875–1938). At the time of his

death, Sir Ambrose Stanton was chief medical advisor to the secre-

tary of state for the colonies and had his offices in Downing Street,

London. Born in Kendal, Durham County, Ontario, he attended lo-

cal schools, Port Hope High School and the University of Toronto.

He took various courses in London, England, where he was associ-

ated with the Institute of Tropical Medicine. He served with distinc-

tion in the British Malay States and found cures for beriberi and

melioidosis, two debilitating and fatal diseases. Later, in London, he

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STEELE, SAMUEL BENFIELD • 387

was at the center of tropical medical research, mainly in advisory and

administrative capacities. He was knighted (KCMG) for his distin-

guished contributions to medical science. His work was recognized

in Canada, and the University of Toronto awarded him a doctorate

in science in 1934. He was one of Canada’s sons who went outward

into the services of the British Empire, and he brought great credit to

his home communities, his province, and his country.

STATUTE OF WESTMINSTER. An act of the British govern-

ment passed in 1931, the statute proclaimed that no law passed

by Westminster should apply to a dominion without the dominion

government’s request and consent. The statute also preserved the

British North America Act (Constitution Act of 1867) as a British

statute, to be amended only at Westminster, when asked to do so by

Canada’s parliament. It declared Great Britain, Canada, and other

self-governing dominions to be linked by common allegiance to the

crown, though in no way subordinate to one another in any aspect of

their internal or external affairs.

STEELE, SAMUEL BENFIELD (1851–1919). Born at Purbrook,

Simcoe County, Ontario, Sam Steele enlisted in the militia at the

age of 15 to fight the Fenian Raids by Irish nationalists in the United

States who were threatening to invade Canada in 1866. In 1870, he

again joined the militia to put down the Red River Rebellion led

by Louis Riel. In 1873, Steele joined the newly formed North West

Mounted Police and became superintendent of this force in 1885.

He commanded the cavalry during the Northwest Rebellion that

year. Two years later, he was sent to the Kootenay district of British

Columbia, where he helped bring peace between the settlers and the

local Indians. In 1898, Steele was ordered to the Klondike and put in

charge of the North West Mounted Police posts on the Chilkoot and

White passes. He then became commander of all police in the newly

established Yukon Territory and gained much respect for establish-

ing law and order among the unruly miners.

Steele left the Yukon in 1899. He later fought in the South Afri-

can War (Boer War) and served in World War I with the rank of

major general. Knighted in 1918, he died in London, England.

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388 • STEFANSSON, VILHJALMUR

STEFANSSON, VILHJALMUR (1879–1962). An explorer, lecturer,

and publicist of the Arctic regions, Stefansson was born in Arnes,

near Gimli, Manitoba, the son of Icelandic immigrants who shortly

thereafter moved to North Dakota. He studied at the Universities of

North Dakota, Iowa, and Harvard. In 1904, he went to Iceland to

study anthropology and archaeology.

Stefansson made three expeditions of note. In 1906–07, he went

to the Mackenzie River delta of northwestern Arctic Canada with

the expedition led by Ernest Leffingwell and Ejnar Mikklesen. Ste-

fansson learned to live, speak, eat, and hunt like the Inuit. Between

1908 and 1912, he conducted an ethnological survey of the central

Arctic coast for the American Museum of Natural History and the

Geological Survey of Canada. Between 1913 and 1918, under

Canadian government auspices, he commanded the Canadian Arctic

Expedition, using sleds in his explorations after the loss of the supply

ship Karluk in 1914.

Stefansson extended contemporary knowledge of the Arctic Archi-

pelago. He mapped large regions of coastline and gained increased

knowledge of Inuit life. He developed a thesis that the Arctic was a

habitable zone where life could be sustained even on the ice floes

without supplies. By rejecting the idea that Arctic exploration was

difficult or venturesome, he invited the censure of other explorers,

such as Roald Amundsen. Stefansson believed that the north was

rich in natural resources and could serve as a shortcut between major

centers of commerce and civilization. He also developed a theme of

human history, now largely discredited, that great empires in north-

ern climes had supplanted lesser empires in more southerly latitudes.

Realizing that future exploration of the north could be conducted

by airplane, Stefansson retired in 1919 to write and lecture. Among

his 24 books, the following volumes enjoyed a wide readership: My

Life with the Eskimo (1913), Friendly Arctic (1921), The Northward

Course of Empire (1922), Hunters of the Great North (1922), Ultima

Thule (1940), and his autobiography, Discovery (1964). He died in

Hanover, New Hampshire.

STEVESTON. Initially a fishing village, Steveston, British Colum-

bia, is now a part of metropolitan Vancouver. It is on Lulu Island,

Fraser River. Its history is central to that of the experience of Japa-

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STO:LO • 389

nese Canadians. The first Japanese arrived in 1887; by 1927, there

were 3,000 in Steveston. A Japanese school, Japanese hospital and

Buddhist temple, and a Japanese benevolent society were established.

Sumo games, judo, and kendo were popular sports, also baseball. A

fishers’ co-op (and store) was established to market fish and establish

credit. Many women found summer work in canneries or worked in

fields harvesting strawberries. Because of its location on the lower

Fraser River, Steveston was a port for ferry traffic, principally to

Vancouver Island (this was before Tsawwassen was developed as a

ferry terminal). In the 1940s and 1950s, CP Coast Steamships main-

tained a Sidney to Steveston service.

Beginning in 1921, government restrictions took two forms against

the Japanese. First, the federal authorities restricted the number of

fishing licenses awarded to Japanese (the policy announced in 1927

was gradually to eradicate ethnic Asian fishers). Second, evacuation

of the Japanese from the coast during World War II destroyed the

community. After the war, many Japanese went to their native home,

on repatriation ships. Steveston is still a symbolic center of Japanese

life in Canada. The story of early Steveston is that of a community

built, lost, and destroyed. The modern history of Steveston is that of

a popular suburb adjacent to the Vancouver International Airport and

the City of Vancouver.

STO:LO. The Sto:lo (from a Salish word meaning “people of the

river”) are the ancestral nation of the Fraser River, Hope, and the

Fraser Canyon, British Columbia. They trace their heritage back

about 11,000 years. That history goes hand in hand with life on the

Fraser River. The river supplied means of food and transport to the

early Sto:lo, and it figured highly in their ceremony and ritual. A

common annual tradition was to share the first salmon caught with

the whole community; then the bones of the fish were returned to the

river from which they had come. The Sto:lo share the rich aboriginal

history of the Fraser Canyon with various First Nations scattered

from Hope to Lytton. All are currently involved in actively protect-

ing their aboriginal fishing and treaty rights. They are also involved

in various tourism, fishing, and forestry initiatives. Museums and art

galleries at Hope, Yale, and Lytton are repositories of their history.