Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
360 • ST. GERMAIN-EN-LAYE, TREATY OF
that commenced in 1648, Huron power collapsed. Disease (influenza,
measles, smallpox) and internal dissension had also caused a crisis.
Five priests were killed: Jean de Brébeuf, Antoine Daniel, Gabriel
Lalemant, Charles Garnier, and Noël Chabanel. They were canon-
ized by Pope Pius XI in 1930. The Jesuits withdrew the mission 15
May 1649. Survivors scattered. The Jesuits burned Ste.-Marie on
purpose, thus keeping it out of the hands of the Iroquois and avoid-
ing desecration.
For a year, the mission was transferred to Christian Island, Lake
Huron. But because of starvation and winter hardship, it was removed
altogether to Québec on 10 June 1650. Beginning in 1855, archaeolog-
ical investigations were undertaken. These were completed in the mid-
20th century by K. E. Kidd for the Royal Ontario Museum and Wilfrid
Jury of the University of Western Ontario. In 1964, the Government of
Ontario began the reconstruction of the mission as a heritage site and
museum. See also CARHAGOUHA; SAGARD, GABRIEL.
ST. GERMAIN-EN-LAYE, TREATY OF. This treaty returned the
settlements at Port Royal and Québec in New France, as well as
ships and cargo seized from Champlain, to France on 29 March 1632.
Québec had been occupied for three years following its conquest by
English pirates led by David Kirke.
ST. JOHN AMBULANCE. The St. John Ambulance and Order of St.
John, Priory of Canada, a charitable organization, traces its origins
to the Middle Ages when the religious Order of St. John was estab-
lished to provide care, comfort, and protection to Christian pilgrims
making their way to Jerusalem. During the 19th century, an English
foundation using the name Order of St. John began teaching classes
in first aid. It also established volunteer ambulance brigades and
home nursing programs.
St. John first aid training was brought to Canada, in part due to the
efforts of British military personnel serving in the country. Brigadier
Surgeon C. M. Douglas taught the earliest recorded St. John first aid
class in Canada in the winter of 1882–83, in Québec City. Other
classes were soon being taught in Montréal and in Halifax, where,
in the 1890s, a St. John Ambulance Brigade was established; several
10_506_Gough.indb 36010_506_Gough.indb 360 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM
ST. LAURENT, LOUIS • 361
members would see service with the Canadian militia in the South
African War (Boer War).
With the outbreak of the World Wars I and World War II, St.
John volunteers, mainly women, were organized in Voluntary Aid
Detachments (VADs) in order to assist in convalescent hospitals and
aid in the transfer of soldiers departing from or returning to Canada
from service overseas. In 1917 and again in 1944, Canadian VAD
personnel were dispatched overseas to serve in a wide range of
roles transporting and treating the casualties of these two conflicts.
Over 300 Canadian and Newfoundland St. John VADs saw service
overseas in World War I, while over 200 saw overseas service in the
World War II, with many more serving in Canada.
In the years since World War II, St. John Ambulance has contin-
ued as a structure within which trainers could contribute to the health
of their communities by teaching St. John first aid courses developed
in keeping with current medical knowledge. Volunteers serving in
St. John Ambulance Brigade divisions offer first aid at public events
and in many civil emergencies, including the 1956 Springhill, Nova
Scotia, Mine Disaster, the 1997 Manitoba Red River Flood, and
the 1998 ice storm, widespread in eastern Canada. By the turn of
the 21st century, St. John had some 7,000 instructors, volunteers,
and staff teaching first aid, and some 13,000 brigade members. The
Order of St. John is part of the Canadian honors system. The Queen
is sovereign head of the order; the governor general serves as prior of
Canada, and provincial lieutenant governors and territorial commis-
sioners serve as vice priors in their respective jurisdictions.
ST. LAURENT, LOUIS (1882–1973). A lawyer, law professor, and
prime minister, St. Laurent was born in Compton, Québec. St.
Laurent was appointed minister of justice in Mackenzie King’s
government in 1941. He was elected for Québec East the following
year. He supported conscription in 1944 and became secretary of
state for external affairs in 1946. Chosen by King as his successor,
“Uncle Louis” became prime minister on 15 November 1948. He
won increasing majorities in the elections of 1949 and 1953. His
government extended old-age pensions, enacted hospital insurance
and equalization payments to provinces, and brought Canada in as
10_506_Gough.indb 36110_506_Gough.indb 361 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM
362 • ST. LAWRENCE RIVER
a signatory member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
He was a strong advocate of the United Nations, and his govern-
ment dispatched forces to the Korean Conflict. His government
was defeated by John G. Diefenbaker’s Progressive Conservative
Party in the election of June 1957. He retired from politics in 1958.
St. Laurent was also a law professor at Laval University, president
of the Canadian Bar Association, and counsel to the Rowell-Sirois
Commission on Dominion-Provincial Relations.
ST. LAWRENCE RIVER. The St. Lawrence River figures promi-
nently in Canada’s early history. Its name was given by French
mariner Jacques Cartier on 10 August 1535, the feast day of St.
Lawrence. Cartier and Samuel de Champlain referred to the river
and its mighty estuary as Rivière du Canada, “the great river of
Canada,” a description that stands the test of time. It was the route of
exploration, the center of New France’s development, and a com-
mercial highway that aided in the economic growth of Canada. The
river is still a major shipping route and also provides electric power.
The St. Lawrence River and valley was a focal point for native,
French, and English settlers. Sedentary native groups, such as the
Iroquois, were settled on the future sites of Québec (Stadacona) and
Montréal (Hochelaga) at the time the first explorers ventured into
the St. Lawrence. Cartier found the river with the aid of natives in
1535. The French explorers and traders developed settlements around
the native areas on the lower St. Lawrence, eventually forcing the
natives from the land. By 1760, the length of river bank between
Montréal and Québec was patterned with long seigneurial strips.
The St. Lawrence River was used for various commercial enterprises
from lumber, wheat, and the fur trade. The prosperity of Québec
and Montréal stem from the importance that the St. Lawrence River
played in Canada’s economic growth. Historian Donald Creighton
contends that those persons who exploited the commercial pros-
pects of the St. Lawrence in the late 18th and early 19th centuries
created, with the help of British trade and navigation regulations,
an empire—“the empire of the St. Lawrence”—that reached to the
western provinces and to the Mackenzie River running north. This is
called “the Laurentian thesis.” The east-west axis that reaches 3,790
kilometers into North America facilitated the growth of Canada as a
10_506_Gough.indb 36210_506_Gough.indb 362 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM
ST. ROCH • 363
nation. See also INNIS, HAROLD ADAMS; SAILING SHIPS; ST.
LAWRENCE SEAWAY.
ST. LAWRENCE SEAWAY. This waterway is a system of locks,
canals, and channels that link the Atlantic with various Great Lakes
heads and ports in the continental interior. By 1900, a shallow (14
feet depth) canal had been completed, and in many cases existing
canals were deepened and widened. Canada was the instigator in
building the modern seaway, telling the United States in 1951 that
Canada would go it alone and build it entirely on Canadian territory
if the United States did not become a partner. In 1954 came the final
agreement, and construction ensued. The Seaway was opened on 26
June 1959. Canadian and U.S. administrations were established to
manage this great engineering feat.
The original specifications allowed for ships of up to 222.5 meters
in length, 23.2 meters breadth, and 7.0 meters draft to sail from Mon-
tréal to Duluth, Minnesota. Immediately after opening, oceanic trade
came to the continental heartland, beneficial to Canadian and U.S.
business. The Seaway made possible the exploitation of vast iron ore
deposits of Québec and Labrador. It also made possible for Canada
to become a world leader in export of grain. It aided intermodal
transportation arrangements. Bulk cargo increased by three times
in the first three decades of operation. It has been fairly said that the
Seaway gave Canada long-range prosperity. However, the environ-
mental problems accompanying the opening of the Seaway deserve
comment. Ships from Europe and Asia bring creatures unknown to
the natural history of North America, the zebra mussel being the most
damaging. See also ST. LAWRENCE RIVER.
ST. ROCH. This vessel was built for the Royal Canadian Mounted
Police by Burrard Dry Dock Company, Vancouver. It was launched
May 1928 and that summer sailed on its maiden voyage to northern
waters. Until 1939, the ship served the western and central Arctic,
operating from Vancouver. In 1940–42, the St. Roch made the his-
toric 28-month voyage through the Northwest Passage from west to
east; it returned from Halifax via a more northerly Arctic route in
1944. In 1950, it sailed from Vancouver via the Panama Canal to
Halifax, becoming the first ship to sail completely around the North
10_506_Gough.indb 36310_506_Gough.indb 363 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM
364 • SAN JUAN BOUNDARY DISPUTE
American continent. In 1954, the St. Roch was retired from service
and returned to Vancouver via the Panama Canal. It became a na-
tional historic site in 1962 and was restored and placed in a shelter at
the Vancouver Maritime Museum.
Sergeant Henry Larsen was the vessel’s famous commander. The
ship patrolled the Arctic waters, asserting Canadian sovereignty, car-
rying out assigned tasks of law enforcement and territorial adminis-
tration. Besides maintaining game laws and arbitrating disputes, the
Arctic Service took census and compiled statistics. They checked on
the living condition of aboriginal peoples, transferring the sick to
hospital for treatment, authorizing the issue of rations for the desti-
tute, aged, and infirm, and conveying children to and from school.
As sole representatives of the Canadian government, they were
also charged with an ambitious mandate—“to uphold and enforce
Canada’s sovereignty of her Arctic Islands.”
SAN JUAN BOUNDARY DISPUTE. One of several contentious
border problems in Canadian history, this one erupted in 1859 at the
height of the British Columbia gold rush. This bore on the question
of what was the water boundary as set forth in the Oregon Treaty of
1846. The issue was control and sovereignty of the San Juan Islands,
specifically San Juan Island. But it also related to taxes to be col-
lected. U.S. authorities in Whatcom County, Washington Territory,
claimed taxing powers on U.S. soil. Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC)
authorities headquartered at Victoria, Vancouver Island, and domi-
nated by the arch-patriot James Douglas, fought for British control.
The “Pig War,” as it is sometimes called, was sparked when an
HBC boar was shot on 15 June 1859 by American squatter Ly-
man Cutler on company land. On 18 July 1859, General Harney,
U.S. Army, ordered 60 soldiers under Capt. George Pickett from
Fort Bellingham to San Juan Island. Field guns were landed by the
Americans and preparations made for heavy guns to be sited. Doug-
las wanted the Royal Navy to intervene, but although there was some
show of British naval force, no violence occurred. When Admiral
Robert Lambert Baynes, Royal Navy, arrived and heard the details
of the escalating problem, he is reputed to have exclaimed, “Tut, tut,
no, no, the damned fools.” He calmed things down. San Juan Island
was placed under joint Anglo-American occupation until 1872. As
10_506_Gough.indb 36410_506_Gough.indb 364 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM
SASKATCHEWAN RIVER • 365
the British Foreign Office and Lord Aberdeen, the British secretary
of state, merely wanted to preserve Vancouver Island—and not the
adjacent islands—for Britain, the entire San Juan archipelago became
U.S. territory.
SASKATCHEWAN. This province is the only one in Canada to have
no natural boundaries. The boundaries are lines of latitude and lon-
gitude. Cree, Blackfoot, Assiniboine, and Chipewyan tribes were
inhabitants of the area prior to immigrant settlement. Among the
first settlers of the area were the Métis, descendants of European fur
traders and their native wives. The scene of a rebellion led by Louis
Riel in 1885, Saskatchewan also saw the actions of Canadian military
forces that brought an end to the rising. The promise of free or cheap
land created a wave of European immigrants in the early 1900s. Sas-
katchewan became a province of the confederation in 1905.
The province has more farmland that any other province in Can-
ada. Saskatchewan produces a large portion of Canada’s wheat. The
province is also rich in minerals. Saskatchewan is the world’s leading
exporter of uranium and the world’s largest producer of potash. It has
oil and natural gas. Although agriculture has long been regarded
as the basis of the economy, in fact, the mining and manufacturing
industries are expanding.
The largest city is Saskatoon. The capital of Saskatchewan is Re-
gina. Other cities and towns in order of size are Prince Albert, Moose
Jaw, Yorkton, Swift Current, and Battleford. The provincial legisla-
tive assembly has 64 seats. Saskatchewan holds 64 seats in the House
of Commons and has six senators. The population exceeds 1 million.
See also ROYAL CANADIAN MOUNTED POLICE.
SASKATCHEWAN RIVER. The Saskatchewan was called Kisis-
katchewani Sipi, “swift-flowing river,” by the natives. Henry Kelsey
(1690) and Pierre La Vérendrye and his sons (c. 1741) were the first
Europeans to see it. The east-flowing river was a transportation route
used by both the Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West
Company. The Saskatchewan also provided an east-west highway
that linked the western provinces to the English commercial enter-
prise during a period of questions about sovereignty over land in the
west.
10_506_Gough.indb 36510_506_Gough.indb 365 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM
366 • SCHUBERT, CATHERINE O’HARE
SCHUBERT, CATHERINE O’HARE (1835–1918). Born in Rath-
friland, County Down, Ireland, Schubert was married at Springfield,
Massachusetts, to August Schubert. Together they ran a beer hall in
St. Paul, Minnesota, before moving to Fort Garry in 1862 with their
three children. Strong-willed and determined, when her husband
wanted to leave her and the family behind to seek his fortune in the
Cariboo with the Overland Party of 1862, she would hear nothing
of it. The only woman Overlander, Schubert was pregnant with her
fourth child when she undertook the journey. The baby, Rose, was
born at Kamloops, British Columbia, a few hours after her mother’s
arrival there in October 1862. August Schubert mined in the Cariboo
for 11 years, beginning in 1863, while the family stayed at Lillooet.
They then lived in various places before settling in Spallumcheen,
British Columbia.
SCOTT, FRANCIS REGINALD (1899–1985). F. R. Scott was born
in Québec City, son of a poet and archdeacon. He went to Oxford
as a Rhodes Scholar, returning to Montréal and McGill University,
where he became a professor of law with a specialty in constitutional
law. He became dean of law in 1961. Inspired by J. S. Woodsworth,
in 1932 he co-founded the League for Social Reconstruction, a
socialist study group that led to the Cooperative Commonwealth
Federation (CCF). He served as national chair for the CCF and
helped write the Regina Manifesto. In the mid-1950s, he completed
analytical studies on such landmark legal cases as the Padlock Law
and Roncarelli v. Duplessis. In 1962, he guided transformation of
the CCF into the New Democratic Party, then retired from partisan
politics. He served on the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and
Biculturalism. In 1970, he supported the War Measures Act. As a
writer, he published Poems of French Canada, Essays on the Consti-
tution, and Collected Poems, all winners of the Governor-General’s
Award. Scott was active in the Penal Association. An expert on law,
economics, and international relations, he wrote widely on those sub-
jects, more particularly assessing the constitutional issues of his time
(e.g., the constitutionality of the Richard Bedford Bennett’s New
Deal). He edited several scholarly and learned journals.
It has been said of F. R. Scott that he was his own blasted pine tree,
an allusion to a pine swept by the wind into twisted form. He started
10_506_Gough.indb 36610_506_Gough.indb 366 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM
SECRET SERVICE • 367
to teach constitutional law the year before the Great Depression,
when, as he put it, the whole North American economy collapsed,
and the world seemed turned upside down. As a teacher, he was also
a social activist. No one, he believed, could live through the Depres-
sion and be unaffected by it. Canadian institutions, he believed,
needed reform. His poetry, marked by epigrammatic expression,
had a strong sarcastic note to it and much irony. He was a strong
supporter of bilingualism and the free development of Canada’s two
principal cultures alongside other ethnic groups. He fought racial in-
tolerance and was a committed civil libertarian. In his time, he stood
for the idea of Canada. His creed was: “The world is my country /
The human race is my race / The spirit of man is my God / The future
of man is my heaven.”
SCOTT, THOMAS (1842?–1870). An Ontario member of the Or-
ange Order, Scott was executed by a firing squad by order of the
Métis provisional government in Assiniboia, Manitoba. He became
a martyr for English-speaking, Protestant causes, and his death
brought calls for revenge. John A. Macdonald’s government put
down the rebellion by show of force; Louis Riel, the Métis leader,
went into exile. It is said that Scott’s ghost was in the courtroom
when Riel was found guilty in 1885. D’Alton McCarthy’s agitation
and the Manitoba Schools Act represented attempts to secure Eng-
lish, Protestant rights, but the agitation split the country.
SECORD, LAURA INGERSOLL (1775–1868). Born in Massachu-
setts, Secord immigrated to Upper Canada with her family after
the American Revolution. In June 1813, during the War of 1812,
she overheard a number of American officers discussing an attack
on a nearby British outpost. Hearing this, Secord moved to inform
the British of the attack, aided by natives. She arrived at the British
encampment on 22 June 1813. Two days later, natives ambushed
the Americans as they approached the post. She became a hero after
it was discovered that she had been the person who forewarned the
British.
SECRET SERVICE. Canada’s first secret service and counteres-
pionage organization was the Royal Canadian Mounted Police
10_506_Gough.indb 36710_506_Gough.indb 367 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM
368 • SEIGNEURIAL SYSTEM
(RCMP). It was concerned with internal security and only inciden-
tally with intelligence gained from outside. Highly effective before
and during World War II, its gleanings were largely ignored by
Canadian and British governments.
Gen. Walter Kirvitsky (a.k.a. Walter Thompson) defected from
the Soviet Union and was followed by unidentified foreigners all the
time he was in Canada. The RCMP advised authorities, including the
British about this, but the information was ignored. However, when
Igor Gouzenko defected in 1945, the RCMP used his evidence to
round up the whole Soviet spy ring in Canada, including such people
as Fred Rose, MP; P.F.P. Smith of the National Research Council in
Ottawa, Kathleen Willsher, a registrar in the British High Commis-
sion in Ottawa; and D. G. Lunan, editor of Canadian Affairs.
In the 1960s, the RCMP targeted the Front de Libération du
Québec (FLQ), a terrorist campaign organized apparently with
Soviet involvement. The campaign climaxed in the Cross-Laporte
kidnappings in 1970 and played a positive role in René Levesque’s
Parti Québecois coming to power.
In 1977, the government-appointed Commission of Inquiry, prob-
ing allegations into RCMP wrongdoings, concentrated on operations
against FLQ terrorists. Various RCMP personnel were charged with
and convicted of illegal wiretapping and of breaking and entering.
Justice David C. McDonald, who conducted the inquiry, found that
the RCMP had made surreptitious entries “without consent or war-
rant,” and exhibited “a willingness on the part of some members
to deceive those outside the Force who have some sort of constitu-
tional authority.” In consequence, the government established a new
agency, the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS). Its
activities are governed by the 1984 Canadian Security Intelligence
Act. Its role is to gather intelligence and look after internal security
and counterespionage; it was given broad powers under stringent
controls. Its activities are monitored by the Security Intelligence Re-
view Committee. See also OCTOBER CRISIS.
SEIGNEURIAL SYSTEM. See NEW FRANCE.
SELKIRK, EARL OF (THOMAS DOUGLAS) (1771–1820). In
1811, the Earl of Selkirk acquired from the Hudson’s Bay Company
10_506_Gough.indb 36810_506_Gough.indb 368 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM
SENATE • 369
(HBC), by buying up its shares, a grant to 300,000 square kilometers
of land in what is now southern Manitoba, North Dakota, and Min-
nesota. Selkirk paid 10 shillings a year rent on the land, an area five
times bigger than his native Scotland. Selkirk hoped to relieve the
distress of Scottish and Irish peasants at home and keep them in the
British Empire by giving them arable land in Rupert’s Land. These
settlers, he argued, would provide food for the HBC and thereby save
it money. And positioned along the rival North West Company’s
(NWC) thoroughfare to the Athabasca country, they were strategi-
cally situated to cut off NWC trade and provoke the Métis who
claimed the area (and its hunting territories) as their own.
Selkirk Settlers reached the territory in stages: 18 in 1812, 120 in
1813, and 83 in 1814. Canadian fur traders called them “oatmeal
eaters.” Fur trader and explorer Alexander Mackenzie, with the
NWC, had engaged in a stock-buying war against Selkirk but failed
to stop the settlement. Terribly cold winters, pestilence, killing frosts,
recurring spring floods, and hostility from the NWC all combined to
make the early years of the settlers trying ones. On 8 January 1814,
Governor Miles MacDonnell issued the Pemmican Proclamation,
forbidding the trappers to take provisions in the territory. By 1815,
conflict between the two companies had reached decisive propor-
tions. In June 1816, in the Battle of Seven Oaks, near the forks of the
Red and Assiniboine rivers, the Nor’Westers defeated HBC forces
and drove the settlers from Red River. Meanwhile, Selkirk, acting
without legal right, decided to retaliate and seize the NWC’s Fort
William. This proved to be a costly mistake. Various court cases
went against him. Mackenzie and Selkirk settled out of court.
Selkirk returned to Europe a broken man and died in France in
1820. Mackenzie died the same year in Scotland. They had fought
an interesting war between the fur trade and settlement. The rivalry
had been violent, and the Colonial Office in London was anxious to
end frontier warfare: they therefore encouraged the union of the two
corporations under the HBC name in 1821.
SELKIRK SETTLERS. See SELKIRK, EARL OF.
SENATE. See PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS; PARLIAMENTARY
SYSTEM.
10_506_Gough.indb 36910_506_Gough.indb 369 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM