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well-educated people can understand them. Constructions according to Per-

sian grammar are long and elaborate, and the sentences long and involved.

As for the third category, which has been described as ‘popular Ottoman’, it

is intended for literate townspeople with a limited knowledge of Arabic and

Persian linguistic features and poetry, in which there is room for elements

from everyday Turkish as well.

109

Ottoman prose writers that ﬁrst come to mind are those who excelled

in s

usl

u prose. These men were basically poets, such as Veys

ı(1567–1628),

Nev‘

ız

ade ‘At

ı and Nergis

ı (d. 1635). Veys

ı’s Siyer-i Veys

ı and H

ab-n

ame-i Veys

especially were considered models by authors of the eighteenth century: the

latter, unlike other poets who preferred Persian models, generally looked to

their Ottoman predecessors. Most of the authors admired for their s

usl

u prose

were scribes in a variety of bureaux, or else had careers as judges, and the

letters they wrote to their friends and patrons have survived as samples in

manuals of style.

Due to limitations of space, we will single out only two prose works, the

ten-volume travel account of Evliy

aC¸ elebi and the Muhayyel

at-ı led

unn-i il

ı of

‘A z

ız Efendi (d. 1798). Both writers were esteemed not so much by contempo-

raries as by late nineteenth- and twentieth-century critics – Evliy

a because he

described the geography and ethnography of the Ottoman world while show-

ing a vivid appreciation of story-telling traditions, and ‘Az

ız Efendi because his

ﬁction formed a link to the stories and novels written by Ottoman authors in

the second half of the nineteenth century.

110

Evliy

a made use of almost all types of prose known to Ottoman writ-

ers, and employed numerous stylistic ﬁgures in order to avoid monotony.

111

Hendrik Boeschoten has divided Evliy

a’s writing into four categories: the

regular account; the author’s inserted poems; quotations from other writers;

and word samples taken from languages and dialects.

112

Evliy

a’s colourful and

109 Fikret Turan, ‘Seyahatname’de sentaks, kelime sec¸imi ve ton’, in Evliya C¸elebi ve seya-

hatname, ed. Nuran Tezcan and Kadir Atlansoy (Gazima

gusa, 2002), pp. 257–8.

110 Cavit Baysun, ‘Evliy

aC¸ elebi’,

Isl

am Ansiklopedisi; J. H. Mordtmann and Herbert Duda,

‘Ewliy

Celebi’, EI 2; Robert Dankoff, An Ottoman Mentality: The World of Evliya C¸ elebi

(Leiden, 2004).

111 For a facsimile edition of volume I, with indices, see Fahir

Iz (ed.), The Seyahatname

of Evliya C¸ elebi, facsimile of TS Bagdat 304,part1, indexes by S¸inasi and G

ul Alpay

Tekin (Cambridge, MA, 1989); selections with English translations have appeared in the

series Evliya C¸ elebi’s Book of Travels: Land and People in the Ottoman Empire of the

Seventeenth Century (Leiden, varying dates). The ﬁrst nine volumes have appeared in

Latin transcription: Evliya C¸ elebi Seyahatnamesi, ed. Orhan S¸aik G

okyay et al. (Istanbul,

1996–2005).

112 Evliy

aC¸ elebi, Evliya C¸ elebi in Diyarbekir: The Relevant Sections of the Seyahatname, ed. and

trans. Martin van Bruinessen et al. (Leiden, 1988), pp. 81–2.

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Ottoman literature

ﬂuent style is due, apart from his talent and wide experience, to the careful

training that he received in the palace as a page to Mur

ad IV.

113

His prose

should be classed in the orta category put forward by Fahir

Iz.

‘A z

ız Efendi, the author of the Muhayyel

at-ı led

unn-i il

ı, was born in Crete

and, as a young man, dissipated his inherited fortune, travelled to Istanbul

and there achieved a successful career, ﬁrst in the palace guards, and then in

the bureaucracy. He was sent to Berlin as the ﬁrst permanent ambassador to

Prussia, where he died in 1798. At one point in his life he went through a crisis

and turned to mysticism. Quite a few elements of his biography were reﬂected

in the stories of the Muhayyel

at.

‘A z

ız Efendi’s work has been noted for its rich intertextuality: the Thousand

and One Nights and other collections of this type have served the author as

points of reference, as well as other collections of Middle Eastern tales; but we

also ﬁnd reminiscences of ancient Greek myths and Muslim saints’ legends, to

say nothing of mesnev

ı poetry.

114

The three major parts of which the work is

composed are named hayal (imagination, illusion). The ﬁrst section recounts

the adventures of a prince and princess named Kamerc

an and G

ulr

uh, and later

those of their children Asil and Nesil. In the second section we ﬁnd an account

of the mystical quest of a dervish called Cev

ad, while the third is devoted to

another mystical search, this time by Prince N

ı, and later to the adventures

of the latter’s son Dil

ah. In each section, a common frame unites several

stories, which are linked so closely to one another that the whole resembles a

novel. In this sense our text, though largely forgotten today, contains features

that are considered typical of the late Ottoman novel as it emerged in the last

quarter of the nineteenth century. ‘Az

ız Efendi’s preface also is quite modern –

indeed, post-modern – in atmosphere: the author claims to have re-worked an

imaginary Persian original, in turn ﬁctionalising it further, so that the reader

is made aware of the fact that the stories are ﬁctitious and yet the illusion

that they might be real always looms in the background. Certainly the author

wished to express the idea, so favoured by mystics, that the world is nothing

but a product of God’s imagination.

115

‘A z

ız Efendi’s work was reprinted ﬁve times after its ﬁrst appearance in

1852, long after the author’s death.

116

While some Ottoman critics found it

113 Mine Mengi, ‘Evliya C¸ elebi Seyahatnamesi’nin I. cildinde tahkiye’, in Evliya C¸ elebi ve

seyahatname, ed. Nuran Tezcan and Kadir Atlansoy (Gazima

gusa, 2002), pp. 197–208,at

p. 207.

114 Andreas Tietze, ‘Aziz Efendis Muhayyelat’, Oriens 1 (1948), 248–329.

115 Zeynep Uysal, ‘Ola

gan

ust

u masaldan c¸a

gdas¸ anlatıya: Muhayyelat-ı Aziz Efendi’, MA

thesis, Bo

gazic¸ı University (1994).

116 Az

ız Efendi, Muhayyel

at-i ‘Az

ız Efendi (Istanbul, 1268/1852).

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hatice aynur

‘too “eastern” in character and claimed that it contained too many old wives’

tales’, it was frequently read by nineteenth-century intellectuals, who seem to

have found the stories inspirational.

117

Perhaps we have not looked enough at

the local roots of late Ottoman novels: of course, the example of the French

novelists was decisive, but it could scarcely have been taken up so readily if

elements in the Ottoman tradition had not prepared the way.

117 Ahmet Kabaklı, ‘Muhayyel

at’, in T

urk dili ve edebiyatı ansiklopedisi (Istanbul, 1986),

vol.6, 424–6; Aziz Efendi, Muhayyelat-ıAziz Efendi,2nd edn., ed. Ahmet Kabaklı(Istanbul,

1990).

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Glossary

abacı manufacturer of a rough woollen fabric known as aba

adab worldly belletristic culture of the literary artists and scribal elite

adaletname edicts addressing speciﬁc complaints by subjects against the exactions and

corruption of ofﬁcials

ga title of respect, for military men and palace personnel

ahi member of urban brotherhood in fourteenth- and ﬁfteenth-century Anatolia

ahidname pledge or covenant

ahk

am defterleri registers of outgoing commands, organised by province and kept by the

central administration

aman pardon, amnesty or safe conduct

amir al-hajj leader of the pilgrimage caravan to Mecca

arasta coveredstreet lined with shops,often rented out for the beneﬁt of a pious foundation

archontes provincial ‘thematic’ notables of the late Byzantine period

Aroumani transhumant herders in the Balkans

arpalık pensions or income for current and former kadıaskers and s¸eyh

ulislams

uz metres consisting of sequences of long and short syllables

ashraf es¸raf (sg. sharif) ‘noble’, used for descendants of the Prophet Muhammad

askeri privileged corps of men serving the sultan, both military men and ofﬁcials

avarız-ı divaniye ‘divan levies’ irregular taxes for campaign purposes that became regu-

larised in the seventeenth century

ayan (Arabic a‘y

an) local notables; in the eighteenth century a district ayan was sometimes

appointed

bab

u ‘s-sa‘

ade a

gası chief white eunuch and overseer of palace affairs

baltacılar kethud

ası senior member of the corps of baltacıs, employed in everyday service

in the palace

stina, bas¸tina a Slavic term denoting hereditary title to land, adopted by the Ottomans

bedel cash substitute for a tax/service normally demanded in kind

bedesten covered market

berat patent of investiture, conﬁrmed by the sultan’s special sign (tu

gra)

beratlı prot

bey title given to high-ranking military men, especially governors

beylicate the highest positions in the Mamluk hierarchy of Ottoman Egypt

bid‘at innovations viewed as reprehensible in religious law

birun ‘outside’ section of the palace, which housed government functions

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Glossary

uk kac¸gun the ‘Great Flight’ (1603–10), culmination of the Celali uprisings

uk mirahur chief stable master

cebel

u bedeliyesi ‘armed man substitute’, tax payable by lifetime tax-farmers during

wartime

Celali uprisings mercenary rebellions in Anatolia (late sixteenth–mid-seventeenth cen-

tury) accompanied by widespread banditry, by soldiers unable to obtain paid positions

in the Ottoman army

cizye head-tax payable by non-Muslims

cizye tahriri register of cizye payers

onk collection of the most popular creations of different s

az s¸

airleri

c¸ars¸ı street, covered or not, lined with shops, often allotted to a single trade

c¸avus¸ ofﬁcial Ottoman envoy/messenger

c¸ift-hane system rural taxation and administration based on the family farm as the funda-

mental unit

c¸iftlik here: landholdings in the hands of provincial notables or high-level ofﬁcials, often

but not always exploited with a view to the market; the necessary labour obtained

through sharecropping, tenants with heavy obligations or servile dependants

dam

ad here: the sultan’s sons-in-law

damga inspection stamp, for which a fee was due

danıs¸mend advanced student in a college for Islamic law and divinity

dar

ulharb (Arabic d

ar al-harb) ‘the abode of war’: non-Muslim lands not paying tribute to

a Muslim ruler

dawra, devre periodic armed tours of an outlying region for the collection of revenues

dayı (French dey) leaders of Belgrade janissaries (title also in use in seventeenth-century

Algiers and Tunis)

defterdar ﬁnance director

derbendci guardian of mountain passes

derbendler bas¸bu

gu chief guardian of the passes

derebe

gi (illegitimate) ‘lord of a valley’, local magnate

dersiye m

uderris stipends assigned to an existing medrese or mosque, without the donor’s

undertaking new construction

deruhdeci ‘ﬁscal protector’ of a village or other community

devs¸irme levy of boys drafted as future kapıkulu

dirlik, temlik revenue assignment

divan in Istanbul, council presided over by the grand vizier, either in the sultan’s palace

or else in his own residence; in the provinces, governors also convened a divan.

ıv

an collection of the poetry (ideally, all the poetry) of a distinguished poet

ebced numerical values assigned to the letters of the Arabic alphabet, which makes it

possible to hide a date in verses or in prose

ecnebi defterleri register books of documents concerning foreigners

efendi educated ofﬁcial, a title often used for scribes

eﬂak, ‘Vlach’ transhumant groups governed byavariantof theeﬂakkanunu(jus valachicum)

ehl-i hibre experienced masters of a craft, with a knowledge of the traditions of the organ-

isation

ehl-i hiref artists/artisans retained for palace service

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Glossary

ehl-i

orf the governor and his men, often viewed as the ‘oppressors of the poor

subjects’

enderun ‘inside’ of the palace, housing the sultan, his harem and their slaves

esame pay tickets on the basis of entries in military muster rolls, in the eighteenth century

commercialised and transferred like securities

esham ‘shares’, referring to lifetime tax-farms; the estimated annual proﬁt of a revenue

source was divided into a large number of shares, sold to the public at ﬁve to six times

the annual proﬁt; thus small investors could extend credit to the Ottoman government

es¸raf (provincial) notables

eyalet/vilayet enlarged provinces of less military and more civilian character, by the sev-

enteenth century the principal division of administration

falname book of divination used as an aid by a fortune-teller, sometimes illustrated

fasıl in Ottoman music, an articulated compound form, a sort of concert suite that includes

a ﬁxed sequence of different pieces, with modal unity, performed by an ensemble of

instrumentalists and singers

ferace cloak, in the 1700s worn by ladies and ulema

fetva opinion on religious-cum-legal questions, taken seriously by judges but non-binding

ﬁrman sultanic command

gazavatname text presenting the hero/patron as a successful ﬁghter, preferably though

not necessarily against the inﬁdels

gazel poem of several couplets, with the ﬁrst couplet rhyming; the same rhyme is then

taken up in the second hemistichs of all the couplets that follow

gedik, kedek the right to pursue one’s trade in a given locale; also the implements and raw

materials needed to pursue the trade in question

ghul

am Iranian infantry of the seventeenth century, modelled partly on the Ottoman

janissaries

ull

uyan ‘volunteers’: mercenaries

ufte/s¸arkı/ilahi/ayin mecmuaları manuscript song-text collections

hacı, hajj pilgrim to Mecca

hadd, hudud Islamic legal punishment

hadith sayings and practices of the Prophet Muhammad

hafız memoriser of the Qur’an

Hanaﬁ one of the four schools of Islamic law, favoured by the Ottomans; all four are

considered as being of right belief although they diverge in matters of detail

haremlik the private section of a house

hass crown lands

hece metre used by the ‘popular’ poets, based on a predetermined number of syllables

and pauses to each line

hul, khul’ divorce whereby a wife materially compensates her husband in exchange for

his consent to end the marriage

unk

ar mahﬁli royal loggia, in a mosque

ic¸o

glanı pages attached to the Topkapı Palace

ijtihad

in Islamic law: doctrine, interpretation

‘ilm religious knowledge in Islam

ilmiye, ‘ilmiyya hierarchy of Ottoman religious cum juridical scholars

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Glossary

iltizam tax-farms auctioned to the highest bidders, both ofﬁcials and non-ofﬁcials, for a

period of usually three years

imam prayer leader

imdad-ı hazariye impositions, ‘aids in peacetime’

imdad-ı seferiye impositions, ‘aids in wartime’

imtiyazat privileges

Irad-ı cedid hazinesi ‘Treasury of New Revenue’ intended to ﬁnance the new army of

Selim III

istimalet policy of accommodating the subjects, especially in newly won provinces

is¸c¸i labourer

kadı sicilleri registers kept by judges

kadıasker ‘army judge’; the two holders of this ofﬁce ranked just below the

s¸eyh

ulislam

kanun law of the Ottoman state, intended to supplement religious law

kanunname listing of regulations, for the empire as a whole or for a single province

kapı halkı a vizier or magnate’s own household troops

kapıcı here: gatekeeper of the palace, often sent out to convey orders

kapıkulu originally‘military slave’, with the attenuation of servile submission to the sultan:

‘soldier in the service of the palace’

kapudan pas¸a chief admiral of the Ottoman navy

kas

ıde poem made up of rhymed couplets whose rhyme remains the same throughout

kaza district, especially one in which a kadi ofﬁciated

kazzaz silk merchant

keth

udalar wardens of various types, especially important among guilds; a high dignitary’s

keth

uda functioned as his man of affairs

khassa people of distinction, ‘who loose and bind’

kırcali eighteenth-century Balkan bandits, known for their attacks on settlements; they

plundered and destroyed whole villages, towns and even cities

kısmet-i belediye ofﬁce concerned with the division of estates of people not in the service

of the sultan (opposed to kısmet-i ‘askeriye)

kızılbas¸ ‘redheads’, derogatory term the Ottomans applied to the Iranian and Anatolian

Shiites

kocabas¸ı non-Muslim notable

kul slave-like servitors of the sultan, a term used for non-ulema members of the Ottoman

ruling group

levend or sekban mercenary soldier, often ‘masterless’

mahalle urban quarter

makam ‘mode’ in Ottoman music

maktu‘ taxes payable as a lump sum from a group of people

mal defterdarı provincial treasurer

malik

ane lifetime tax-farm

mamluk military slaves or freedmen, organised in households

martolos semi-military group operating close to the Ottoman borders

mecm

u‘a collection of diverse texts, usually for the collector’s private use

medrese school of law and divinity, training future ulema

524

Glossary

mehr dower given to a wife at marriage; it was divided into two parts, one of them due

immediately, while a (usually) larger sum was payable upon termination of the marriage

mehr-i m

ueccel delayed dowry, due at the death of one of the spouses, or at repudiation

men

akıbn

ame text describing the vitas and miracles of famous dervish sheikhs

menzil ofﬁcial messenger system; at the expense of local taxpayers, horses, messengers

and guides were made available along the principal routes

menzilhane posting-station

mescid mosque in which no Friday prayers are pronounced, without a minaret

mesnev

ı lengthy poem in which the metre does not change and every couplet has its own

rhyme, with the pattern aa/bb/cc

mes¸k teaching of Ottoman musicians and transmission of performance styles; mes¸k also

aimed at creating a social/ethical and musical code of conduct

mes¸khane training school for Ottoman musicians

mevlid recital, for devotional purposes, of a religious poem in praise of the Prophet

Muhammad

mısır kulları soldiers locally recruited in Egypt

Milit

argrenze the military frontier zone along the southern limits of Austria-Hungary,

guarded by peasant-soldiers of free status

millet ofﬁcially recognised religious group; in the eighteenth and early nineteenth cen-

turies, religious identity for many of the empire’s Christians became contested and was

ultimately rearticulated

miri property of the state: woods, pastures, agricultural land, taxes, etc.

miri levendat state-ﬁnanced infantry and cavalry regiments

muaccele ‘prompt payment’ paid by the incoming holder of a lifetime tax-farm

Muallem Asakir-i Mansure-yi Muhammadiye ‘The Trained Victorious Soldiers of

Muhammad’, corps instituted by Mahmud II

muallim-i sultan imperial preceptor

mufassal defter register documenting the periodic censuses of tax-paying population and

agricultural production, undertaken by the Ottoman central government during the

ﬁfteenth and sixteenth centuries

muhafız fortress commander

muhassıl intendant of a provincial treasury

muhassıl-ı emval provincial ﬁnance supervisor

muhtesib market supervisor

mukabele ceremony of Mevlevi dervishes

mukataa revenue source

musavvir (pl. musavvir

an) artist, designer, portrait painter

ubayaacı commissioner in charge of procuring supplies for the Ottoman state, usually

under market price

uderris teacher in a college of law and divinity

ufti jurisconsult

ulk private as opposed to state property: in the Ottoman context, houses, gardens,

vineyards, orchards and vegetable patches

ultezim tax-farmer

uns¸e

at collection of samples of ofﬁcial documents, for the instruction of scribes

525

Glossary

usellem soldiers, reduced to subject status in the late sixteenth century

uste’min beneﬁciary of an aman

uteferrika palace guardsmen, often recruited from distinguished families; military corps

in Egypt

utegallibe ‘oppressor’, ‘usurper’, a term often used pejoratively for local magnates

utesellim tax-collection agent, provincial treasurer

utevelli vakıf administrator

nafaka stipend granted to orphans, divorced wives or slaves employed on sultanic con-

struction projects

naib judge-adjunct

nakkas¸ (pl. nakkas¸

an) painter

naqib al-ashraf, nakib

ules¸raf the chief of the descendants of the Prophet

narh ofﬁcially decreed price

nasihatname ‘mirrors-for-princes’-type treatises whose authors addressed not only the

sultan and leading ofﬁcials but often a wider readership as well

neﬁr-i ‘am mobilisation of the taxpayers of a region, as a militia

nezir late seventeenth- to mid-nineteenth-century usage: major sums of money pledged

to the Ottoman government as guarantees for promises made by villages and other

communities

Nizam-ı Cedid the new army instituted by Selim III, disbanded after the defeat of this

ruler by his ‘pretorian guard’, the janissaries

ul provisions for the military, to be delivered by the taxpayers

ocaklık revenue source earmarked for the pay of a given military corps, imperial enterprise

Phanariotes Greek notables of Istanbul, sometimes descended from the Byzantine nobil-

ity, with strong ties to the Ecumenical patriarch; in the eighteenth century, governors of

Wallachia and Moldavia

pronoia Byzantine tax grant to military men

reaya ‘ﬂocks’, used for all tax-paying subjects, as opposed to the sultans’ servitors; in the

nineteenth century used only for non-Muslims

reaya fukarası ‘the poor subjects’, term often used to denote Ottoman subjects in general

reis

ulk

uttab, reis efendi originally the chief scribe in the service of the grand vizier; by the

eighteenth century, bureau chief in charge of ‘foreign affairs’

uus-i tedris teaching permit carrying with it an appointment to a low-level medrese

salgun large, often illegal, demands in cash or kind

sarıca, sekban mercenary forces

sancak sub-province

sancakbeyi governor of a sub-province

sarraf (non-Muslim) moneychangers, both private and in the service of the court

sarraf bas¸ı court banker

Sarakatsani transhumant herders in the Balkans

saz musical instrument whose strings are plucked; also ornament popular in the sixteenth

century

saz s¸

airleri, as¸ıklar poets whose compositions were sung to the s

sebil kiosk where drinking water was passed out

selamlık public section of a house, where male visitors were received

526

Glossary

Sened-i

Ittifak agreement by which, in 1808, the principal magnates pledged ﬁdelity to

Sultan Mahmud II

serbest free from immediate government oversight

serıb

uk title borne by some of the palace gatekeepers

serrac literally ‘saddler’: that is, non-slave recruits to the military corps of Cairo

seyyid descendant of the Prophet Muhammad

sharakan Armenian liturgical hymns

shaykh al-balad neologism reﬂecting the control of a Mamluk head of household over

late eighteenth-century Cairo, even while nominally an Ottoman governor ruled in the

city

silsilename genealogy, usually of sultans or dervish sheikhs, sometimes embellished with

portraits

sipahi holders of tax assignments, owing cavalry or more rarely administrative services;

or else, horsemen in the service of the sultan’s palace

siyaset the sultan’s power to punish arbitrarily; today, ‘politics’

surname ‘book of rejoicing’, recording the details of festivities sponsored by the Ottoman

dynasty

ursat contributions for the army on campaign

s¸adırvan fountain for ablutions

s¸arkı a poem with a melody

s¸ehir keth

udası ofﬁcial representing both the central authority and the local community,

in towns sometimes functioning like a mayor

s¸ehnameci writer who narrated the lives and achievements of an Ottoman sultan in Persian

verse, in a manner reminiscent of Firdaus

ı’s Shahn

ame

s¸ehr-engiz literary text praising the beauties of a given city

s¸ehremini ofﬁcial responsible for the ﬁnancial aspects of constructing sultans’ buildings

s¸eriat, shari‘a Islamic religious law

S¸erifs of Mecca a dynasty of descendants of the Prophet Muhammad who had governed

the Hijaz in pre-Ottoman times, and continued to do so throughout the Ottoman

period

s¸eyh, sheikh headman of a guild (in Cairo), senior member of a dervish order, elder of a

tribe

s¸eyh

ulislam chief jurisconsult (m

uft

u); head of the Ottoman religious cum juridical hier-

archy

s¸irket commercial partnership

talak male-initiated repudiation of a wife

Tanzimat mid- nineteenth-century reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the adminis-

trative and military realms

tanzir, nazire poetic response to an existing composition; the metre, rhyme and echo-

rhyme all conform to that of the original

tarih manzumeleri

verses in which a date/dates is/are hidden, expressed in ebced

tasarruf right of possession

tekalif-i

orﬁye irregular levies

tekalif-i s¸akka extraordinary levy, illegal but tolerated

tekke dervish lodge

527