Dacko S.G. The Advanced Dictionary of Marketing Putting Theory to Use
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Y
Y, theory
DESCRIPTION
A theory of human motivation that views individuals as innately productive
and cooperative.
KEY INSIGHTS
Developed as one of two competing theories by McGregor (1960), with the
other theory being theory X (see X, theory), theory Y views individuals
as motivated, ambitious, and eager to accept responsibility and exercise
self-control and self-direction. Based upon an optimistic view of human
nature, the theory provides a basis for a set of management practices
for workforce motivation that includes striving to remove barriers that
prevent workers from reaching their full potential and providing condi-
tions that give employees freedom to be their best. While most employee
behaviors and corresponding management practices do not reach such
an extreme as that characterized by theory Y, the theory nevertheless
is influential through its incorporation into other management theories,
practices, and styles which can be described in many other ways includ-
ing hard vs. soft and tough vs. lenient. Organizations characterized as
theory Y organizations, for example, can be described as relatively loose
and free, where control is achieved through voluntary compliance that is
gained through persuasion and affiliation.
KEY WORDS Employee motivation, management practice
IMPLICATIONS
Marketing managers involved in the development and implementation
of management practices that seek to make the most of employees’
full potential may benefit from an understanding of the principles and
concepts associated with theory Y. While the theory Y view is character-
istically extreme, an understanding of theory nevertheless enables the
marketer to assess better its positive contribution to the development of
beneficial marketing management practice.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Urban, Glen L. (2003). ‘The Trust Imperative,’ MIT Sloan Working Paper, No. 4302-03,
March. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=400421.
Marketing Management
Willmott, H. (1993). ‘Strength is Ignorance; Slavery is Freedom: Managing Culture
in Modern Organizations,’ Journal of Management Studies (Oxford), 30(4), 515–552.
581 Yerkes–Dodson law
International Marketing
Oh, Tai K. (1976). ‘Theory Y in the People’s Republic of China,’ California Management
Review, 19(2), Winter, 77.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
McGregor, Douglas (1960). The Human Side of Enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill.
McGregor, Douglas (1966). Leadership and Motivation. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Y-generation see generational marketing
yellow goods see goods
Yerkes–Dodson law
DESCRIPTION
A theoretical inverted U-shaped relationship between an individual’s cognitive
arousal and his or her task performance, where the individual’s task perfor-
mance is highest at medium levels of arousal and lowest at both low and high
levels of cognitive arousal.
KEY INSIGHTS
Developed in pioneering research by Yerkes and Dodson (1908), the
Yerkes–Dodson law relates an individual’s cognitive arousal to his or
her task performance and proposes that medium intensity stimulation
provides an optimum level of arousal for the fastest and most effective
learning by the individual. Drawing upon research in neuroscience and
biopsychology, the law posits that too little stimulation results in a lack
of motivation to perform a task, whereas too much stimulation results in
distraction. The relationship proposed by the Yerkes–Dodson law, which
is generally supported by research in marketing and psychology, suggests
that two different processes influence task performance, the first being
an energizing effect of cognitive arousal and the second being arousal’s
negative, stress-inducing effect. Low arousal levels make it difficult for an
individual to distinguish between relevant and irrelevant information,
leading to information overload and a lack of response by an individual.
Medium levels of arousal, on the other hand, enable an individual to
ignore irrelevant information and focus better on the task at hand, while
higher levels of arousal can lead to over-sensitization by an individual
where the individual disregards relevant as well as irrelevant informa-
tion.
KEY WORDS Marketing stimuli, cognitive arousal, task performance
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers involved in presenting consumers with stimuli for inducing
cognitive arousal as a means to encourage particular consumer actions
can benefit from the communication principles suggested by the Yerkes–
Dodson law. In particular, the law suggests that marketers should strive
to avoid overwhelming consumers with relevant stimuli and information
in marketing communications (e.g. sales pitches, advertising) as well as
Yerkes–Dodson law 582
underwhelming them with information providing insufficient motiva-
tions for action, if the aim is to provide optimal levels of marketing
stimuli to induce desired consumer actions.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Communications
Day, Rong-Fuh, Shyi, Gary C.-W., and Wang, Jyun-Cheng (2006). ‘The Effect of Flash
Banners on Multiattribute Decision Making: Distractor or Source of Arousal?’
Psychology and Marketing, 23(5), 369–382.
Tavassoli, N. T., Shultz, C. J., and Fitzsimons, G. J. (1995). ‘Program Involvement:
Are Moderate Levels Best for Ad Memory and Attitude toward the Ad?’ Journal of
Advertising Research, 35(5), 61–72.
Services Marketing
Singh, J., Goolsby, J. R., and Rhoads, G. K. (1994). ‘Behavioral and Psychological
Consequences of Boundary Spanning: Burnout for Customer Service Represen-
tatives,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 31(4), 558–569.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Yerkes, R. M., and Dodson, J. D. (1908). ‘The Relation of Strength of Stimulus
to Rapidity of Habit-Formation,’ Journal of Comparative Neurological Psychology, 18,
459–482.
Broadhurst, P. L. (1957). ‘Emotionality and the Yerkes–Dodson Law,’ Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 54, 345–352.
Broadhurst, P. L. (1959). ‘The Interaction of Task Difficulty and Motivation: The
Yerkes–Dodson Law Revisited,’ Acta Psychologica, 16, 321–338.
Z
Z, theory
DESCRIPTION
An approach to human resource management that emphasizes the adoption
and integration of a ‘Japanese’ style of management and associated manage-
ment practices.
KEY INSIGHTS
Developed by Ouchi (1981), who builds upon concepts developed and
subsequently published by Deming (1986), theory Z is based on the
premise that employees consider work as something that is natural and
can be satisfying to the extent it meets their work-related psychologi-
cal needs. In adopting a theory Z perspective, organizations therefore
strive to develop employee loyalty through total concern for the person.
Employment security and stable career prospects are key characteristics
of theory Z organizations. A theory Z management approach emphasizes
employee involvement in decision making, seeks to develop employee
team spirit, recognizes employee contributions, and aims to develop
mutual employee–management respect. In addition, while control sys-
tems may be implicit and informal, there is also an emphasis on the use
of explicit and formal measures for evaluation.
KEY WORDS Employee motivation, management practice
IMPLICATIONS
While many organizations may find it challenging to adopt fully a man-
agement style based on theory Z, knowledge of the theory and its sup-
porting concepts can be invaluable to marketing managers seeking to
understand the many possible benefits as well as costs stemming from its
implementation. At the very least, understanding better the theory and
its principles can provide marketing managers with a basis of comparison
for alternative managerial approaches as well as guidance for gradually
transforming their organizations in ways that enable greater long-term
effectiveness.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Kotler, P., and Fahy, L. (1985). The New Competition: What Theory Z Didn’t Tell You about
Marketing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Marketing Management
England, G. W. (1983). ‘Japanese and American Management: Theory Z and
beyond,’ Journal of International Business Studies, 14, Fall, 131–141.
Z, theory 584
Lazer, William, Murata, Shoji, and Kosaka, Hiroshi (1985). ‘Japanese Marketing:
Towards a Better Understanding,’ Journal of Marketing, 49(2), Spring, 69–81.
Sullivan, J. J. (1983). ‘A Critique of Theory Z,’ Academy of Management Review , 8, 132–
142.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ouchi, William G. (1981). Theory Z: How American Business Can Meet the Japanese
Challenge. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
Deming, W. Edwards (1986). Out of the Crisis. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Z-generation see generational marketing
zero-sum game see game theory
zone pricing see pricing strategies
Select Bibliography
Beyond the specific bibliographies presented for each of the terms in
this dictionary, the following is a more general bibliography that may
be beneficial for further reference and reading:
Bennett, Peter D. (ed.) (1995). Dictionary of Marketing Terms. Chicago: NTC Business
Books.
Black, John (1997). A Dictionary of Economics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Colman, Andrew M. (2001). A Dictionary of Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Heery, Edmund, and Noon, Mike (2001). A Dictionary of Human Resource Management.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Marshall, Gordon (ed.) (1998). A Dictionary of Sociology . Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Mercer, David (1999). Marketing: The Encyclopedic Dictionary. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell
Publishers, Inc.
Pallister, John, and Isaacs, Alan (ed.) (2002). A Dictionary of Business. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Pearce, David W. (ed.) (1989). The MIT Dictionary of Modern Economics, 3rd edn.
Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press.
Vogt, W. Paul (1993). Dictionary of Statistics and Methodology. London: Sage Publica-
tions, Inc.
www.wikipedia.com
APPENDIX
Classification of Key Terms
The following lists categorize all the dictionary entries as laws, theories,
concepts, and effects. Sub-categorizations are also provided. For an expla-
nation of these categories, please see the Introduction.
1. Laws (along with principles and rules)
2. Theories (along with hypotheses, models, paradigms, and paradoxes)
3. Concepts (along with marketing approaches and techniques)
4. Effects (along with biases, fallacies and errors, phenomena, and
syndromes)
1. Laws (along with principles and rules)
LAWS
averages, law of
comparative advantage, law of
comparative judgment, law of
demand, law of
diminishing marginal utility, law of
diminishing returns, law of
effect, law of
Engel’s law
exchange, law of
exercise, law of
experience, law of see experience
curve effect
first law of marketing see marketing,
laws of
forgetting law see forgetting curve
forgetting, law of see forgetting curve
Goodhart’s law
Gresham’s law
heavy half, law of the see Pareto
principle
Hick’s law
increasing opportunity cost, law of see
diminishing returns, law of
Jost’s law see forgetting curve
large numbers, law of
law(s) of . . . see specific entries, e.g.
diminishing returns, law of
Little’s law
marketing, laws of
Merkel’s law see Hick’s law
Metcalfe’s law
Moore’s law
Murphy’s law
one price, law of
Pareto’s law see Pareto principle
Parkinson’s law
parsimony, law of
personal exploitation, law of see least
interest, principle of
power law of forgetting
price, law of one see one price, law of
primacy, law of
Reilly’s law see retail gravitation, law
of
retail gravitation, law of
service, laws of
supply and demand, law of
supply, law of
variable proportions, law of see
diminishing returns, law of
Walras’ law
587 Classification of Key Terms
Weber–Fechner law
Weber’s law see Weber–Fechner law
Yerkes–Dodson law
PRINCIPLES
accelerator principle
eighty-twenty principle see Pareto
principle
exclusion principle
iceberg principle
least effort, principle of
least interest, principle of
locality, principle of
marketing, principles of
Pareto principle
Peter principle
principle(s) of . . . see specific entries, e.g.
least effort, principle of
recency principle
RULES
eighty-twenty rule see Pareto principle
marketing, rules of
recency rule see recency effect
rule(s) of . . . see specific entries, e.g. ten
percent, rule of
sundown rule see marketing,
rules of
ten foot rule see marketing, rules of
ten percent, rule of
2. Theories (along with hypotheses, models, paradigms, and paradoxes)
THEORIES
accordion theory see retail accordion
theory
achievement motivation theory
adaptation-level theory
adoption theory
advertising theory
agency theory
AL theory see adaptation-level
theory
arbitrage pricing theory
assimilation-contrast theory
attitudes, functional theory of
attribution theory
balance theory
bargaining theory
Bayesian decision theory
behavioral decision theory
behavioral theory of the firm see firm,
theory of the
capture theory
catastrophe theory
central place theory
change, E and O theories of see Eand
O theories of change
chaos theory
characteristics theory
clubs, theory of
cluster theory
cognitive consistency theory
cognitive theory
communication-information
processing theory
complexity theory
congruity theory
construal-level theory
consumer behavior, theory of
consumer choice, characteristics
theory of see characteristics
theory
consumer demand theory
consumer satisfaction theory
contingency theory
contingency theory of management
accounting
cooperative game theory see game
theory
Darwinian evolution theory
decision theory
demand, characteristics theory of see
characteristics theory
dialectic process theory
drive theory of social facilitation
E and O theories of change
E, theory see E and O theories of
change
economic theory of clubs see clubs,
theory of
equity theory
ERG theory
exchange theory
expectancy theory
Classification of Key Terms 588
expectancy-value theory see
expectancy theory
expected utility theory
field theory
firm, behavioral theories of the see
firm, theory of the
firm, managerial theories of the see
firm, theory of the
firm, theory of the
functional theory of attitudes see
attitudes, functional theory of
fuzzy set theory
game theory
general systems theory see systems
theory
generalizability theory
gestalt theory
goods-characteristics theory see
characteristics theory
gravity theory
greater fool theory
Herzberg’s theory of
motivation
hierarchy of needs theory
information processing theory
information systems theory
inoculation theory
internalization theory
item response theory
job characteristics theory
Lancaster’s characteristics theory see
characteristics theory
latent trait theory see item response
theory
learning theory
leisure class, theory of the see
conspicuous consumption
Lewin’s field theory see field
theory
location theory
management theory
managerial theories of the firm see
firm, theory of the
marketing, theories of
Maslow’s theory of motivation or need
hierarchy see hierarchy of needs
theory
motivation, Herzberg’s theory of see
Herzberg’s theory of motivation
natural selection theory see Darwinian
evolution theory
need hierarchy theory see hierarchy of
needs theory
network theory
non-cooperative game theory see game
theory
O, theory see E and O theories of
change
options theory
organization theory
personal construct theory
planned behavior, theory of
population ecology theory
portfolio theory
price theory
product characteristics theory see
characteristics theory
prospect theory
psychoanalytic theory
queuing theory
random-walk theory
rational choice theory
reader-response theory
real options theory see options
theory
reasoned action, theory of
resource dependency theory
retail accordion theory
retail location theory see location
theory
self-actualization, Maslow’s theory of
see hierarchy of needs theory
self-perception theory
set theory
small group theory
social cognitive theory
social exchange theory
social identity theory
social learning theory
stakeholder theory
subcultural theory
subjective expected utility theory
symbolic interaction theory
systems theory
temperament theory
theory of/theories of . . . see specific
entries, e.g. marketing, theories of
theory . . . see specific entries, e.g. X, theory
transaction cost theory
trickle down theory
upper echelons theory
utility theory
589 Classification of Key Terms
value, characteristics theory of see
characteristics theory
waiting line theory see queuing theory
wheel of retailing theory
X, theory
Y, theory
Z, theory
HYPOTHESES
efficient market hypothesis
just world hypothesis
MODELS
Dirichlet model
elaboration likelihood model
expectation-disconfirmation model
hierarchy of effects model see
hierarchy of effects
PARADIGMS
OLI paradigm see eclectic paradigm
Churchill’s paradigm
Dunning’s eclectic paradigm see
eclectic paradigm
eclectic paradigm
PARADOXES
Icarus paradox
3. Concepts (along with marketing approaches and techniques)
CONCEPTS
a priori validity see validity
absolute cost advantage
absorptive capacity
accessibility see segmentation
viability
acquiescence response set
action see buyer influence/readiness
actionability see segmentation
viability
actor–observer difference
actual product see product levels
adaptation
adaptive strategy
administered VMS see channel
arrangement
adopter categories
adoption see adoption process
adoption process
adverse selection
affect
affordable method see promotion
budget setting methods
age segmentation see segmentation
agglomeration economies
AIDA see buyer influence/readiness
AIDCA see buyer influence/readiness
alternative evaluation see buyer
decision process
anchoring and adjustment
Ansoff matrix see product-market
investment strategies
approach see selling process
approach–avoidance conflict
asset see strategic asset
attention see buyer
influence/readiness
augmented product see product levels
awareness see adoption process;
buyer influence/readiness
baby boomer see generational
marketing
backward integration see integration
balanced scorecard
barriers to entry see entry barriers
base-rate fallacy
basing-point pricing strategy see
pricing strategies
Baumol’s cost disease
BCG growth-share Matrix see product
portfolio analysis
behavioral segmentation see
segmentation
benchmarking
benefit segmentation see
segmentation
benefits
better mousetrap fallacy
bias
blaming the victim
bliss point
Boston Consulting Group matrix (or
Boston matrix) see product portfolio
analysis
boundary spanning
bounded rationality