Dacko S.G. The Advanced Dictionary of Marketing Putting Theory to Use
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conative 110
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
White, M. C., Marin, D. B., Brazeal, D. V., and Friedman, W. H. (1997). ‘The Evolu-
tion of Organizations: Suggestions from Complexity Theory about the Interplay
between Natural Selection and Adaptation,’ Human Relations, 50(11), 1383–1401.
Anderson, Philip (1999). ‘Complexity Theory and Organization Science,’ Organiza-
tion Science, 10(3), Special Issue: Application of Complexity Theory to Organiza-
tion Science, May–June, 216–232.
McKelvey, B. (1999). ‘Complexity Theory in Organization Science: Seizing the
Promise or Becoming a Fad?’ Emergence, 1, 3–32.
Brown, S. L., and Eisenhardt, K. M. (1997). ‘The Art of Continuous Change: Linking
Complexity Theory and Time-Paced Evolution in Relentlessly Shifting Organiza-
tions,’ Administrative Science Quarterly, 42(1), 1–34.
Marketing Management
Johnson, J. L., and Burton, B. K. (1994). ‘Chaos and Complexity Theory for Manage-
ment,’ Journal of Management Inquiry, 3, 320–328.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Byrne, David (1998). Complexity Theory in the Social Sciences. London: Routledge.
conative
DESCRIPTION
A term used to characterize the part of an individual’s psychological processes
that involves purposeful action.
KEY INSIGHTS
In contrast to cognitive (thinking, learning, processing information) and
affective (feeling and emotion), the term conative is used in character-
izing action that is inclined, attempted, or undertaken by an individual.
Loyalty to a brand, for example, may be examined conatively as well as
cognitively and affectively.
KEY WORDS Action, psychological processes
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers concerned with understanding consumer attitudes and pref-
erences need to recognize how concepts or constructs such as brand
loyalty may have multiple components, including a conative compo-
nent, and not merely a cognitive or affective component. More gener-
ally, understanding consumers’ psychological processes inclining them
toward action is essential if the aim of the marketer is to influence
consumer behavior.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Consumer Behavior
Back, K. J., and Parks, S. C. (2003). ‘A Brand Loyalty Model Involving Cognitive,
Affective, and Conative Brand Loyalty and Customer Satisfaction,’ Journal of
Hospitality and Tourism Research (Washington DC), 27(4), 419–435.
Dick, Alan S., and Basu, Kunal (1994). ‘Customer Loyalty: Toward an Integrated
Conceptual Framework,’ Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 22(2), 99–113.
111 concurrent marketing
Marketing Strategy
Smith, Robert E., and Swinyard, William R. (1983). ‘Attitude–Behavior Consistency:
The Impact of Product Trial versus Advertising,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 20(3),
August, 257–267.
Marketing Education
Fritz, Robert L. (1991). ‘The Association of Selected Conative Variables to Field-
Dependence with Inferences for Reasoning Characteristics in Marketing Educa-
tion,’ Research Report No. ED341813, Educational Resource Information Center, 1–23.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kolbe, Kathy (1990). The Conative Connection: Uncovering the Link between Who you Are
and How you Perform. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
concentrated marketing see niche marketing
concept testing see new product development
concorde fallacy see sunk cost fallacy
concurrent marketing
(also called integrated marketing)
DESCRIPTION
Marketing characterized by the systematic and simultaneous integration,
planning, and development of marketing activities implemented by a firm
over time.
KEY INSIGHTS
The major premise of concurrent marketing, as opposed to marketing
efforts where the various steps and stages (e.g. new product development,
production, new product introduction and promotion, and after-sales
service) are viewed linearly, and planned sequentially and separately, is
that the entire marketing process may be enhanced from the firm’s as
well as the customer’s perspective if such steps or stages are planned
simultaneously and systematically integated. Similar to the notion of
concurrent engineering which is aimed at reducing product develop-
ment lead time and eliminating subsequent quality problems, current
marketing, as advocated by Cespedes (1995), argues that marketing may
also benefit in many ways by emphasizing simultaneous integration of
marketing activities at the outset of, and throughout, marketing planning
and implementation. When marketing activities and responsibilities are
integrated throughout the organization and permeate every organiza-
tional function, the firm may be said to be adopting a total integrated
marketing approach (see total integrated marketing).
KEY WORDS Marketing planning, marketing integration
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers should recognize that, while many marketing activities appear
sequential, their effectiveness may be significantly enhanced by a con-
current marketing effort. Whether the emphasis is on new product
confirmation bias 112
marketing or in analyzing existing marketing activities, a current mar-
keting approach is becoming increasingly imperative to ensure both
marketing effectiveness and efficiency.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Schwartz, D. G. (2000). ‘Concurrent Marketing Analysis: A Multi-agent Model for
Product, Price, Place and Promotion,’ Marketing Intelligence and Planning, 18(1),
24–29.
Kippenberger, T. (1998). ‘Aligning Marketing Activities: Production, Sales and Ser-
vice,’ The Antidote, 3(5), 10–11.
Duncan, T., and Moriarty, S. (1997). Driving Brand Value: Using Integrated Marketing to
Manage Profitable Stakeholder Relationships. New York: McGraw-Hill.
International Marketing
Sheth, J. N. (2001). ‘From International to Integrated Marketing,’ Journal of Business
Research, 51, 5–9.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cespedes, Frank V. (1995). Concurrent Marketing: Integrating Product, Sales, and Service.
Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Hulbert, James M., Capon, Noel, and Piercy, Nigel (2003). Total Integrated Marketing:
Breaking the Bounds of the Function. New York: Free Press.
concurrent validity see validity
confirmation bias
DESCRIPTION
The tendency to seek out and select evidence in support of a belief, conjecture,
or hypothesis and to ignore evidence or opportunities to gather evidence that
could potentially work to disconfirm such views.
KEY INSIGHTS
Research on the confirmation bias suggests the tendency is one that is
pervasive in human nature, where such a bias has the effect of maintain-
ing one’s beliefs, which may include views that are untrue (e.g. stereotyp-
ical views). As a result, approaches to compensate for the phenomenon
have been developed, including the use of the scientific method which
emphasizes efforts to disprove one’s hypotheses.
KEY WORDS Decision making, judgment, bias, hypothesis testing
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers as well as consumers are equally prone to the human tendency
to adopt the confirmation bias in their analyses and decision-making
processes whenever beliefs, conjectures, or hypotheses (whether implicit
or explicit) are evaluated or put to the test. For example, marketers
that have developed an advertising campaign may seek out information
that confirms the campaign is effective in creating excitement toward a
particular brand and ignore information that suggests the campaign is
largely ineffective or is even creating the opposite effect.
113 confusion marketing
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Consumer Behavior
Hoch, Stephen J., and Ha, Young-Won (1986). ‘Consumer Learning: Advertising
and the Ambiguity of Product Experience,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 13(2),
September, 221–233.
Marketing Management
Hoch, Stephen J., and Deighton, John (1989). ‘Managing What Consumers Learn
from Experience,’ Journal of Marketing, 53(2), April, 1–20.
Wirtz, Jochen, and Mattila, Anna S. ‘The Impact of Expected Variance in Perfor-
mance on the Satisfaction Process,’ International Journal of Service Industry Manage-
ment, 12(4), October, 342–358.
McMillan, Jeffrey J., and White, Richard A. (1993). ‘Auditors’ Belief Revisions and
Evidence Search: The Effect of Hypothesis Frame, Confirmation Bias, and Profes-
sional Skepticism,’ Accounting Review, 68(3), July, 443–465.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fielder, Klaus (2000). ‘On Mere Considering: The Subjective Exposure of Truth,’ in
Herbert Bless and Joseph P. Forgas (eds.), The Message Within: The Role of Subjective
Experience in Social Cognition and Behavior. Philadelphia: Psychology Press, 13–36.
Klayman, Joshua, and Young-Won Ha (1987). ‘Confimation, Disconfirmation, and
Information in Hypothesis Testing,’ Psychological Review, 94(2), 211–228.
confusion marketing
DESCRIPTION
A strategic marketing approach which involves making it difficult for con-
sumers to make direct comparisons between a firm’s and competitive offer-
ings, thereby giving the firm a means of maintaining higher prices and
profit margins than would otherwise be possible under conditions of easy
comparisons of offerings.
KEY INSIGHTS
Research on the concept suggests that the concept of confusion market-
ing has been actively used by firms with offerings including credit cards,
cellular (mobile) telephones, and banking products, with results that have
had the effect of contributing to the maintenance of high product and
service profit margins. When such conditions are present in a firm’s mar-
keting strategy, it may of course be questioned to what extent confusion
marketing is actually intentional as opposed to an unintentional part of
the strategy. Ultimately, negative consumer reactions may arise with such
conditions to the extent consumers are dissatisfied or frustrated in their
inability to make clear product comparisons on price and other important
attributes given information provided by marketers. However, not all
consumers are aware that such conditions may be the result of such an
intentional marketing strategy.
KEY WORDS Marketing strategy, confusion, value
IMPLICATIONS
A strategic approach involving confusion marketing may be a completely
viable approach to any firm operating in an industry characterized by
wide arrays of niche offerings, for example. However, the approach is
congruity theory 114
ethically questionable as intentionally clouding transparency for product
comparisons will ultimately work to a consumer’s disadvantage in that
the approach seeks to hide rather than expose the true value of various
product offerings.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Banyard, Peter (2001). ‘Confusion Marketing,’ Credit Management, April, 32–33.
Marketing Research
Drummond, Graeme, and Rule, Gordon (2005). ‘Consumer Confusion in the UK
Wine Industry,’ Journal of Wine Research, 16(1), April, 55–64.
Marketing Education
Drummond, Graeme, (2004). ‘Consumer Confusion: Reduction Strategies in Higher
Education,’ International Journal of Educational Management, 18(5), August, 317–323.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bond, Simon (2001). ‘Brits in a Bristle Over Confusion Marketing,’ Media Life Maga-
zine, March 30. http://www.medialifemagazine.com/news2001/mar01/mar26/
5fri/ news6friday.html. Accessed 20 July 2007.
congruity theory
DESCRIPTION
The name given to the quantitative model of Osgood and Tannenbaum (1955)
of how a third-party observer might react, in terms of judgment, to a situation
involving two contradicting parties or contradictory beliefs or behaviors.
KEY INSIGHTS
Congruity theory as formulated by Osgood and Tannenbaum (1955)
proposes that an individual’s observation of such a contradictory or
inconsistent situation will lead to a motivation to reduce the associated
dissonance by changing a judgment. If there were no incongruities, the
individual would not experience any pressure to change a judgment but if
there are incongruities, the level of pressure to change a judgment would
be in relation to the level of incongruity.
KEY WORDS Judgment, contradictions, incongruity
IMPLICATIONS
As consumers are exposed to a tremendous amount of information about
new and existing products, services, and brands, it is inevitable that
consumers will at various points in time observe situations involving
incongruities in behaviors, beliefs, or attitudes. For example, to the extent
consumers believe that incongruities exist in a set of brand names,
their evaluations of brand extensions may be influenced. Under such
circumstances, concepts based on congruity theory may be useful to help
understand the different ways in which consumers might react.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Consumer Behavior
Sirgy, M. Joseph (1982). ‘Self-Concept in Consumer Behavior: A Critical Review,’
Journal of Consumer Research, 9(3), December, 287–300.
115 conjunction fallacy
Lorimor, E. S., and Dunn, S. Watson (1968). ‘Reference Groups, Congruity Theory
and Cross-Cultural Persuasion,’ Journal of Communication, 18(4), 354.
Branding
Meyers-Levy, J., Louie, T. A., and Curren, M. T. (1994). ‘How does the Congruity of
Brand Names Affect Evaluations of Brand Name Extensions?’ Journal of Applied
Psychology, 79(1), 46–53.
Jamal, Ahmad, and Goode, Mark M. H. (2001). ‘Consumers and Brands: A Study
of the Impact of Self-Image Congruence on Brand Preference and Satisfaction,’
Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 19(7), 482–492.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Osgood, C., and Tannenbaum, P. (1955). ‘The Principle of Congruity in the Predic-
tion of Attitude Change,’ Psychology Review, 62, 42–55.
conjunction fallacy
DESCRIPTION
A judgment bias where an individual overestimates the probability or likeli-
hoodforsomethinginvolvingtwoormore conditionsrelativeto theprobability
or likelihood for something involving either condition alone.
KEY INSIGHTS
Pioneering research by Tversky and Kahneman (1982) identified and
characterized the conjunction fallacy as a bias or judgment error that
is a widespread human tendency. Specifically, the fallacy represents a
violation of probability theory as the probability of two joined events A
and B occurring can never exceed the probability of A or the probability
of B. The conjunction fallacy is said to arise as a result of individuals using
a representativeness heuristic in their judgment.
KEY WORDS Judgment, bias, fallacy, probabilities
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers must be aware of committing the conjunction fallacy in their
judgments whenever they are involved in estimating probabilities asso-
ciated with complex conditions. For example, the conjunction fallacy
would occur in a manager’s judging his or her young, professional cus-
tomers as more likely to be people who read the Financial Times and own
BMWs than individuals who own BMWs. Alternatively, in developing a
new product, the conjunction fallacy would be committed if a marketer’s
estimate of the probability of successfully completing a multi-step new
product development project was greater than the probabilities associ-
ated with successfully completing the project’s individual steps.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
New Product Development
Cooper, Lee G. (2000). ‘Strategic Marketing Planning for Radically New Products,’
Journal of Marketing, 64(1), January, 1–16.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Tversky, A., and Kahneman, D. (1982). ‘Judgments of and by Representativeness,’ in
D. Kahneman, P. Slovic, and A. Tversky (eds.), Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics
and Biases. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
conspicuous consumption 116
consensual validity see validity
conspicuous consumption
DESCRIPTION
Purchasing or consuming goods for the purposes of displaying status or wealth
and impressing others as opposed to satisfying a utilitarian need.
KEY INSIGHTS
Conceptually developed by economist Thorstein Veblen, conspicuous
consumption captures the notion that some consumption behaviors are
motivated fully by social factors. Originally examined in relation to the
consumption behavior of upper-class society and supporting Veblen’s
theory of the leisure class (Veblen 1899), the term has since become used
more broadly to refer to consumption behavior motivated strongly by the
desire to display social status, prestige, or wealth.
KEY WORDS Social influences, consumption behavior
IMPLICATIONS
When a consumer’s motivation to purchase or use a product or service
is motivated more by social factors than need, conspicuous consumption
can be said to be present in the consumer’s buying and consumption
behavior. An extreme example (based on fact) is when a consumer, in a
highly social and mobile society, drives alone in a car and pretends to
talk on his mobile phone, just to be seen by others doing so, but does so
without having the telephone turned on! Marketers of products whose
current and prospective consumers may potentially associate with status,
prestige, and wealth should therefore seek to understand fully consumer
motivations for purchase and consumption and leverage accordingly such
knowledge in the development and implementation of such offerings as
well as the associated strategies for their positioning, pricing, promotion,
and distribution.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Mason, R. (1998). The Economics of Conspicuous Consumption. Northampton, Mass.:
Edward Elgar.
Bagwell, L. S., and Bernheim, B. D. (1996). ‘Veblen Effects in a Theory of Conspicu-
ous Consumption,’ American Economic Review, 86, 349–373.
Consumer Behavior
Mason, R. (1981). Conspicuous Consumption: A Study of Exceptional Consumer Behavior.
Farnborough: Gower.
O’Cass, A., and McEwen, H. (2004). ‘Exploring Consumer Status and Conspicuous
Consumption,’ Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 4(1), 25–39.
Marketing Research
Mason, Roger S. (1982). ‘Conspicuous Consumption: A Literature Review,’ European
Journal of Marketing, 18(3), 26–39.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Veblen, Thorstein (1899). Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study in the Evolution
of Institutions. New York: Macmillan.
117 construal-level theory
construal-level theory
DESCRIPTION
A theory proposing that individuals use more abstract and global mental mod-
els to represent information about distant future events and more concrete
and local mental models to represent information about near future events.
KEY INSIGHTS
Construal-level theory (CLT), as developed in research by Trope and
Liberman (2000, 2003), suggests that the spatial or temporal distance
of social objects or events influences how individuals represent such
objects or events. Specifically, when evaluating spatially distant events,
CLT suggests that individuals will tend to use more central, abstract,
and global features (i.e. high-level construals), and when evaluating near
events, individuals will tend to use more peripheral, concrete, and local
features (e.g. low-level construals). Supporting the theory is the view that
removing an individual from the direct experience of an event makes
information about the event less available and reliable, thereby leading
individuals to rely more on prototypical information. When individuals
use abstract mental models to characterize information concerning a
distant event, they rely on general, superordinate, and essential features
of the event. On the other hand, when individuals use concrete mental
models to characterize information concerning a near event, they rely on
contextual and incidental features of the event.
KEY WORDS Temporality, spatial distance
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers seeking to understand temporal influences on consumer
behavior, such as how time can influence consumer evaluations of a new
product for possible adoption, can benefit from a deeper knowledge of
construal-level theory in that they may potentially be able to identify
and predict systematic temporal influences on consumer behavior. In the
context of consumer evaluation of new products or services, for example,
it is found that, when thinking of using a new product in a distant future,
consumers tend to put more weight on the benefits and less on the cost,
or hassles, of using the new product. CLT, therefore, suggests important
implications for marketers including the timing of market research and
time-based advertising strategies.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Ziamou, Paschalina, and Veryzer, Robert W. (2005). ‘The Influence of Temporal
Distance on Consumer Preferences for Technology-Based Innovations,’ Journal of
Product Innovation Management, 22(4), July, 336.
Lynch, John G., Jr., and Zauberman, Gal (2006). ‘When Do You Want It? Time,
Decisions, and Public Policy,’ Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 25, Spring, 67–
78.
Marketing Research
Bonoma, Thomas V. (1985). ‘Case Research in Marketing: Opportunities, Problems,
and a Process,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 22(2), May, 199–208.
consumer behavior, theory of 118
Consumer Behavior
Kardes, Frank R., Cronley, Maria L., and Kim, John (2006). ‘Construal-Level Effects
on Preference Stability, Preference–Behavior Correspondence, and the Suppres-
sion of Competing Brands,’ Journal of Consumer Psychology, 16(2), 135–144.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Trope, Y., and Liberman, N. (2000). ‘Temporal Construal and Time-Dependent
Changes in Preference,’ Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 79, 876–889.
Trope, Y., and Liberman, N. (2003). ‘Temporal Construal,’ Psychological Review, 110,
403–421.
construct validity see validity
consumer behavior, theory of
DESCRIPTION
Theory or theories aimed at understanding, explaining, and predicting the
behavior of consumers.
KEY INSIGHTS
As consumer behavior encompasses an extremely broad set of phenom-
ena, consumer behavior theory is equally broad. While the aim of much
consumer behavior theory is to provide a comprehensive theory for
understanding, explaining, and predicting the bulk of consumer behav-
ior, there have nevertheless been, and continue to be, many competing
and complementary consumer behavior theories developed and advo-
cated. Some economics-based consumer behavior theories, for example,
adopt the view that consumers have utility functions which indicate their
levels of satisfaction with any and all possible sets of goods and where
such consumers then purchase goods to maximize those utilities within
price and income constraints. Yet, it is also recognized in other theoretical
perspectives on consumer behavior that consumers sometimes engage in
satisficing behaviors (see satisficing), where they may use trial-and-error
approaches in the purchase of goods, for example.
KEY WORDS Behavior, consumption
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers seeking a rigorous and critical understanding of consumer
behavior may potentially benefit from a greater immersion in the rich
body of consumer behavior theory-based research. Explaining and pre-
dicting consumer behavior is often very challenging, but adopting one
or more theoretical perspectives provides the marketers with a means
to test, evaluate, and compare actual behaviors with those suggested by
particular consumer behavior theories.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Consumer Behavior
Assael, Henry (1997). ‘Product Classification and the Theory of Consumer Behav-
ior,’ Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 2, 539–552.
119 consumer buyer behavior
Bettman, James R. (1979). An Information Processing Theory of Consumer Behavior. Read-
ing, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
Cohen, Joel B. (1968). ‘Toward an Interpersonal Theory of Consumer Behavior.’
California Management Review, 11, Spring, 73–80.
Duesenberry, James S. (1949). Income, Saving, and the Theory of Consumer Behavior.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Georgescu-Roegen, Nicholas (1936). ‘The Pure Theory of Consumer Behavior,’ Quar-
terly Journal of Economics, 50, August, 545–593.
Michael, R. T., and Becker, G. S. (1973). ‘On the New Theory of Consumer Behavior,’
Swedish Journal of Economics, 75, 378–395.
Ratchford, B. T. (1975). ‘The New Economic Theory of Consumer Behaviour: An
Interpretive Essay,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 2, 65–75.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Blackwell, Roger D., Miniard, Paul W., and Engel, James F. (2001). Consumer Behavior,
9th edn. Fort Worth: Harcourt College Publishers.
consumer buyer behavior
DESCRIPTION
The purchase-related behavior of consumers.
KEY INSIGHTS
Consumer buyer behavior can be characterized in many ways, but
primarily by the degree of consumer involvement and extent of per-
ceived differences among brands. Common behavioral characterizations
include: complex buying behavior, where consumer involvement in the
purchase is high and where the consumer perceives many important dif-
ferences among brands; habitual buying behavior, where consumer involve-
ment in the purchase is low and where the consumer perceives few
important differences among brands; variety-seeking buyer behavior, where
consumer involvement in the purchase is low and where the consumer
also perceives many important differences among brands, thereby lead-
ing to instances of brand switching for the purpose of experiencing
variety; and dissonance-reducing buyer behavior, where consumer involve-
ment in the purchase is high and where the consumer perceives few
important differences among brands, thereby leading to instances where
consumers are compelled to shop around for an expensive, infrequent, or
risky purchase but then buy relatively quickly as a result of seeing little
difference among brands.
KEY WORDS Buying decision behavior
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers must seek to understand the type of behavior involved in the
consumer buying decision in order to be able to be effective in its timely
influence. Recognizing the extent of buyer deliberation in the buying
decision process can enable the marketer to provide appropriate mar-
keting communications, such as where communications for toothpaste
may be through a large shelf display denoting a good price but where