Dacko S.G. The Advanced Dictionary of Marketing Putting Theory to Use
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contrast effect 130
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ginsberg, Ari, and Venkatraman, N. (1985). ‘Contingency Perspectives of Organ-
izational Strategy: A Critical Review of the Empirical Research,’ Academy of
Management Review, 10(3), July, 421–434.
Otley, D. (1980). ‘The Contingency Theory of Management Accounting: Achieve-
ment and Prognosis,’ Accounting, Organizations and Society, 5(4), 413–428.
contractual VMS (vertical marketing system) see channel
arrangement
contrarian marketing see unconventional marketing
contrast effect
DESCRIPTION
Any effect of contrasting stimuli on individual perception, cognition, or
resulting individual performance or action.
KEY INSIGHTS
In many ways, contrast effects are widely present in terms of their role
in, and influence on, individual perception and cognition. The study
and influence of contrast effects encompasses a wide range of consumer
behavior research, although a primary aim of much contrast effect-
related research is concerned with implications for consumer judgment.
KEY WORDS Stimuli, perception
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers seeking a deeper understanding of consumer behavior relative
to their offerings may potentially benefit from a greater knowledge of
contrast effect-related research by obtaining insights into more effective
marketing strategies and/or tactical practices. For example, to the extent
that marketer-controllable contrast effects are systematically related to
elements of consumer behavior, such as in the use of a contrasting color
to enhance awareness of a firm’s product relative to those of competitors,
marketers can develop communication approaches that not only use but
seek to amplify such effects.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Consumer Behavior
Novemsky, Nathan, and Ratner, Rebecca (2003). ‘The Time Course and Impact of
Consumers’ Erroneous Beliefs about Hedonic Contrast Effects,’ Journal of Con-
sumer Research, 29(4), 507–516.
Stapel, Diederik A., Koomen, Willem, and Velthuijsen, Aart S. (1998). ‘Assimilation
or Contrast? Comparison Relevance, Distinctness, and the Impact of Accessible
Information on Consumer Judgments,’ Journal of Consumer Psychology, 7(1), 1–24.
Meyers-Levy, Joan, and Sternthal, Brian (1993). ‘A Two-Factor Explanation of Assim-
ilation and Contrast Effects,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 30(3), August, 359–368.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lynch, John G., Chakravarti, Dipankar, and Mitra, Anusree (1991). ‘Contrast Effects
in Consumer Judgments: Changes in Mental Representations or in the Anchor-
ing of Rating Scales?’ Journal of Consumer Research, 18, December, 284–297.
131 convergence marketing
convenience product see product classifications, consumer
convergence marketing
DESCRIPTION
Marketingemphasizing strategies for reaching‘thenewhybrid’ consumer who
combines e-business and traditional business offerings to suit their tastes.
KEY INSIGHTS
Developed by Wind, Mahajan, and Gunther (2002) in a book by the
same name, convergence marketing is characterized by five areas termed
the ‘five Cs’: customerization, or convergence of customized and stan-
dardized offerings; community, or convergence of virtual and physical
communities; channels, or seamless convergence of call, click, and visit;
competitive value, or convergence of new and traditional competitive
value equations and pricing models; and choice tools, or convergence
of new search engines and decision tools for consumers and company-
provided advice. In essence, convergence marketing advocates the view
that marketers should develop marketing strategies to allow consumers
to ‘pick and choose’ how they wish to receive and use information which,
increasingly, involves online and offline approaches.
KEY WORDS Hybrid consumers
IMPLICATIONS
While many firms are increasingly engaging in online marketing activ-
ities, convergence marketing suggests that firms should find ways to
seamlessly integrate their online and offline (e.g. traditional) marketing
activities to satisfy the needs of the growing numbers of ‘hybrid’ con-
sumers. To be sure, some offerings such as music are increasingly evalu-
ated and purchased online and offline, while other traditional offerings
such as toothpaste may have little need for online marketing support,
but as the scope of the marketing effort increases to encompass infor-
mation and value-added offerings surrounding basic product offerings
(e.g. dental hygiene information in association with toothpaste), a con-
vergence marketing approach is increasingly suggested. (See also hybrid
marketing and fusion marketing for approaches conceptually similar
to convergence marketing).
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Vaccaro, V., and Cohn, D. Y. (2004). ‘The Evolution of Business Models and Mar-
keting Strategies in the Music Industry,’ International Journal on Media Management,
6(1&2), 46–58.
Dawson, R. (2003). Living Networks: Leading your Company, Customers, and Partners in the
Hyper-Connected Economy. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Financial Times Prentice Hall.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Wind, Yoram, Mahajan, Vijay, and Gunther, Robert E. (2002). Convergence Market-
ing: Strategies for Reaching the New Hybrid Consumer. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Financial Times Prentice Hall.
cooperative marketing 132
convergent validity see validity
conviction see buyer influence/readiness
cooperative game theory see game theory
cooperative marketing
(also called comarketing, cross-marketing, joint marketing, partnership
marketing, reciprocal marketing, or symbiotic marketing)
DESCRIPTION
Alliances between organizations for sharing in the responsibility of marketing
their respective offerings with the aim of achieving a common objective.
KEY INSIGHTS
Firms engaging in cooperative or comarketing alliances and partnerships
with other firms, whether in the same or different industries, may do
so for any number of reasons including achieving greater marketing
scale economies, pooling complementary assets or competencies, and
more easily accessing new markets or market segments. Such marketing
alliances among firms may be short or long term in duration, with the
stability of the alliance often being dependent on the relative balance
of power between the alliance partners as well as the ongoing strategic
importance of the common marketing objectives to each.
Another meaning of cooperative marketing refers to the marketing
efforts of cooperatives, or enterprises or organizations owned collectively
by individual or organizational members and where it is operated for the
benefit of its members (e.g. farm cooperatives, electrical cooperatives).
While discussed less frequently in the marketing literature, the ambigu-
ity associated with the term suggests it is essential to know the context
in which the term is used in order to understand its intended meaning.
KEY WORDS Marketing alliances, partnerships
IMPLICATIONS
While it may be easy to view other firms in the same industry as
competitors, or even fierce adversaries, marketers should also consider
the possibility that marketing objectives may be able to be effectively
pursued through a comarketing approach with one or more of such firms.
An example is the case of two competing newspaper firms in Seattle that
decided to engage in comarketing by sharing distribution resources (e.g.
trucks) as a means to reduce their respective distribution costs while also
making it easier to expand the distribution of their respective newspa-
pers.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Dowling, G., and Robinson, C. (1990). ‘Strategic Partnership Marketing,’ in Gower
Handbook of Logistics and Distribution Management, 4th edn. Aldershot: Gower.
Adler L. (1966). ‘Symbiotic Marketing,’ Harvard Business Review, 44, November–
December, 59–71.
133 corporate marketing
Vardarajan, P. R., and Rajaratnam, D. (1986). ‘Symbiotic Marketing Revisited,’ Jour-
nal of Marketing, 50, January, 7–17.
International Marketing
McCutchen, W. W., and Swamidass, P. M. (1998). ‘Explaining the Differences in
Domestic and Cross-Boundary Strategic Alliances in the Pharmaceutical/Biotech
Industry,’ International Journal of Technology Management, 15(3–5), 490–506.
Tourism marketing
Standeven, J. (1997). ‘Sport Tourism: Joint Marketing. A Starting Point for Beneficial
Synergies,’ Journal of Vacation Marketing, 4(1), 39–51.
Okoroafo, S. (1989). ‘Cooperative Marketing,’ in S. F. Witt and L. Moutinho (eds.),
Tourism Marketing and Management Handbook. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice-Hall, 79–
82.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bucklin, L. P., and Sengupta, S. (1993). ‘Organizing Successful Co-marketing
Alliances,’ Journal of Marketing, 57, 32–46.
copycat marketing see me-too marketing
copyright see intellectual property
core benefit see product levels
corporate marketing
DESCRIPTION
A marketing philosophy and function emphasizing an integrated approach to
marketing at the institutional level.
KEY INSIGHTS
Corporate marketing is considered by its proponents including Balmer
(1998) to be more of a philosophy of marketing than a marketing func-
tion. Its philosophical emphasis is a strong organizational concern with
multiple past, present, and future exchange relationships of the organiza-
tion with multiple stakeholders, where stakeholders may be individuals,
groups, and/or networks. While the term suggests applicability to corpo-
rations defined in the narrow sense (i.e. registered legal entitities which
are given similar legal rights to that of a natural person), the term adopts
a broader definition of corporate (e.g. any group of individuals acting
as a whole) and therefore suggests that the philosophical approach is
applicable to a wide range of entitities including non-profit organizations
and business alliances. As there are a number of marketing concepts
that are concerned with marketing activities at the corporate level (e.g.
corporate branding, corporate identity, and corporate communications),
corporate marketing can therefore be viewed as an ‘umbrella’ concept
that seeks to synthesize multiple corporate-level concepts.
KEY WORDS Institutions, marketing integration
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers concerned with increased organizational effectiveness in
exchange relationships with multiple stakeholders may benefit from a
cost 134
greater understanding of the concept and principles of corporate market-
ing. Even though corporate marketing is much more of a philosophy than
a function, increased adoption of the philosophy by marketers within
the organization may ultimate lead marketers to become more effective
at orchestrating multiple marketing elements at the corporate level and
below.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Wilson, M. A. (2001). ‘Understanding Organizational Culture and Implications for
Corporate Marketing,’ European Journal of Marketing, 35(3–4), 353–367.
Marketing Management
Keller, K. L., and Aaker, D. A. (1997). ‘Managing the Corporate Brand: The Effect
of Corporate Marketing Activity on Consumer Evaluations of Brand Extensions,’
Working Paper Report No. 97-106, May, Cambridge, Mass.: Marketing Science
Institute.
Services Marketing
McDonald, M. H. D., De Chernatony, L., and Harris, F. (2001). ‘Corporate Marketing
and Service Brands: Moving beyond the Fast-Moving Consumer Goods Model,’
European Journal of Marketing, 35(3–4), 335–352.
International Marketing
Farrelly, F. J., Quester, P. G., and Burton, R. (1997). ‘Integrating Sports Sponsorship
into the Corporate Marketing Function: An International Comparative Study,’
International Marketing Review, 14(3), 170–182.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Balmer, J. M. T. (1998). ‘Corporate Identity and the Advent of Corporate Marketing,’
Journal of Marketing Management, 14, 963–996.
Balmer, J. M. T. (2001). ‘Corporate Identity, Corporate Branding and Corporate
Marketing: Seeing through the Fog,’ European Journal of Marketing, 35(3–4), 248–
291.
corporate VMS (vertical marketing system) see channel arrange-
ment
cost
DESCRIPTION
Financial or other resources which are given up to obtain something via
purchase, exchange, or production.
KEY INSIGHTS
Costs can be characterized many ways. Common characterizations of
costs include: fixed costs—costs that remain the same regardless of a
firm’s production output or sales volume; variable costs —costs that vary
in proportion to a firm’s production output or sales volume; sunk costs—
costs which cannot be recovered (as when a firm has unrecoverable costs
when it withdraws a product from a market); opportunity costs—the value
of forgone alternative actions (e.g. actions implemented at the expense
of others); transaction costs—costs other than price (e.g. time) which are
135 counter-marketing
incurred in the purchase or exchange of products or services; and switch-
ing costs—costs (e.g. financial, time) that are incurred by a consumer in
the process of changing from one product to another.
KEY WORDS Purchase, exchange, production
IMPLICATIONS
As cost management is often part of a marketer’s responsibility, a detailed
knowledge of the nature of the various costs associated with marketing
efforts is essential. In addition, beyond price, marketers need to under-
stand and appreciate the extent of different types of costs that a consumer
incurs or experiences in relation to the purchase of the firm’s offerings.
For example, consumers may pay a low ticket price when flying on a low-
cost airline but the transaction may also involve experiencing extremely
long queues and delays when checking in. In other instances, switching
costs may be a deterrent to consumers, as in the case of banking, where
consumers may experience significant switching costs (e.g. time and
effort) to change from one bank to another.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Sutton, J. (1991). Sunk Cost and Market Structure: Pride Competition, Advertising, and the
Evolution of Concentration. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Moorthy, K. S., and Srinivasan, K. (1995). ‘Signaling Quality with a Money-Back
Guarantee: The Role of Transaction Costs,’ Marketing Science, 14(1), 442–466.
Phillips, Lynn W., Chang, Dae R., and Buzzell, Robert D. (1983). ‘Product Quality,
Cost Position and Business Performance: A Test of Some Key Hypotheses,’ Journal
of Marketing, 47(2), Spring, 26–43.
Marketing Management
Nilssen, Tore (1992). ‘Two Kinds of Consumer Switching Costs,’ RAND Journal of
Economics, 23, 579–589.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Buzzell, R. D., and Farris, P. W. (1977). ‘Marketing Cost in Consumer Goods
Industries,’ in H. Thorelli (ed.), Strategy, Structure, Performance. Bloomington, Ind.:
Indiana University Press, 122–145.
cost-plus pricing see pricing strategies
cost strategy see strategies, generic
counter-marketing
DESCRIPTION
Marketing that is aimed at nullifying the marketing efforts of another.
KEY INSIGHTS
In contrast to demarketing’s emphasis on reducing demand (see demar-
keting), counter-marketing’s aim is the elimination or reversal of
demand created by the marketing efforts of another (e.g. firm, organiza-
tion, industry). Thus, some public health organizations engage in counter-
marketing to nullify the demand for cigarettes created by tobacco
country of origin effect 136
industry marketing. In an effort to do so, a counter-marketing approach
can involve drawing consumers’ attention to the marketing strategies
employed by the marketer(s) (e.g. using advertising that shows smokers
as beautiful, popular, intelligent, and sophisticated) and then providing
information demonstrating the inaccuracy of such images and messages.
When consumers exposed to counter-marketing realize that marketing
plans have been created specifically to influence their attitudes and con-
sumption behaviors, they may realize they have been tricked or unfairly
manipulated and subsequently change their attitudes and behaviors.
KEY WORDS Demand elimination
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers concerned with nullifying the demand created by other mar-
keters may benefit from a greater understanding of counter-marketing
strategies and tactics. At the same time, marketers must also recog-
nize that responses to the firm’s marketing efforts may include that of
counter-marketing and, as such, marketers must evaluate carefully the
firm’s marketing strategies for susceptibility to nullification by various
counter-marketing strategies.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Zucker, D., Hopkins, R. S., Sly, D. F., Urich, J., Kershaw, J. M., and Solari, S.
(2000). ‘Florida’s “Truth” Campaign: A Counter-Marketing, Anti-Tobacco Media
Campaign,’ Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 6, 1–6.
Advertising
Siegel, M. (2002). ‘Antismoking Advertising: Figuring out what Works,’ Journal of
Health Communication, 7, 157–162.
Sly, D. F., Hopkins, R. S., Trapido, E., and Ray, S. (2001). ‘Influence of a Coun-
teradvertising Media Campaign on Initiation of Smoking: The Florida “Truth”
Campaign,’ American Journal of Public Health, 91, 233–238.
Consumer Behavior
Kozlowski, L. T., Palmer, R., Stine, M. M., Strasser, A. A., and Yost, B. A. (2001).
‘Persistent Effects of a Message Counter-Marketing Light Cigarettes,’ Addictive
Behaviors, 26(3), 447–452.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
McKenna, J., Gutierrez, K., and McCall, K. (2000). ‘Strategies for an Effective Youth
Counter-Marketing Program: Recommendations from Commercial Marketing
Experts,’ Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 6, 7–13.
country of origin effect
DESCRIPTION
Any influence of knowledge of a product’s country of origin, or where it
was produced, manufactured, assembled, grown, or otherwise created, on
an individual’s perceptions and evaluations of the product’s attributes.
KEY INSIGHTS
Because manufacturers usually disclose the country where a product is
made, individuals evaluating the product may use such information to
137 cross-cultural marketing
infer product characteristics which are otherwise difficult to observe.
More specifically, individuals may make associations between countries
and product attributes including quality, reliability, durability, style,
value, and cheapness. Associations between a product’s country of origin
and particular product attributes are sometimes justifiable; yet, in other
instances, they may not be since location of manufacture may not have
any relationship whatsoever with the expertise or quality of materials or
manufacturing processes used for the product.
KEY WORDS Perceptions, evaluations, product quality
IMPLICATIONS
To the extent knowledge of a country of origin enhances product per-
ceptions, the marketability of a product is enhanced. When there is a
negative influence on product perceptions, the marketer’s task is made
more difficult, especially when negative perceptions do not correspond
to a product’s actual quality. Marketers should seek to understand how
and to what extent a product’s evaluation is influenced by consumer
perceptions of its country of origin.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Consumer Behavior
Erickson, Gary M., Johansson, Johny K., and Chao, Paul (1984). ‘Image Variables
in Multi-Attribute Product Evaluations: Country-of-Origin Effects,’ Journal of Con-
sumer Research, 11(2), September, 694–699.
Johansson, Johny K., Douglas, Susan P., and Nonaka, Ikujiro (1985). ‘Assessing the
Impact of Country of Origin on Product Evaluations: A New Methodological
Perspective,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 22(4), November, 388–396.
Hong, Sung-Tai, and Wyer, Robert S., Jr. (1989). ‘Effects of Country-of-Origin and
Product-Attribute Information on Product Evaluation: An Information Processing
Perspective,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 16(2), September, 175–187.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Al-Sulaiti, Khalid I., and Baker, Michael J. (1998). ‘Country of Origin Effects: A
Literature Review,’ Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 16(3), June, 150–199.
credence goods see goods
Crespi effect see elation effect
criterion validity see validity
CRM see customer relationship management
cross-cultural marketing
DESCRIPTION
Marketing concerned with efforts to span cultural boundaries.
KEY INSIGHTS
Cross-cultural marketing’s emphasis is on understanding and explaining
cross-cultural differences along multiple dimensions (e.g. beliefs, atti-
tudes, purchase behaviors) and using such knowledge to develop effective
cross-cultural marketing 138
marketing strategies, methods, and tactics that help an organization
accomplish its marketing objectives. While cross-cultural marketing has
much in common with international marketing (see international mar-
keting) in its emphasis on spanning and/or bridging markets that dif-
fer in important broad respects, cross-cultural marketing may also be
performed within a single domestic or country market where multiple
cultures exist. Nevertheless, many cross-cultural differences exist across
national borders. At the same time, there are also similarities with multi-
cultural marketing in terms of the marketing emphasis on understanding
cultural differences. (See multicultural marketing.) However, in con-
trast to multicultural marketing’s emphasis on efforts to concurrently
market to individuals situated within and among multiple cultures, cross-
cultural marketing’s emphasis is more on comparisons of differences that
exist across cultures which are typically more geographically diverse or
dispersed and which are more prevalent across national boundaries.
KEY WORDS Cultural differences
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers of firms with objectives to span cultural boundaries may ben-
efit from a greater understanding of the many dimensions along which
cultural differences can be assessed. Knowledge of cultural similarities
and difference can therefore enable the marketer to develop effective
marketing methods (e.g. research tools, communications strategies, chan-
nels of distribution) that are more closely aligned with the cultural char-
acteristics of the firm’s target markets.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Herbig, P. A. (1998). Handbook of Cross-Cultural Marketing. New York: The Halworth
Press, Inc.
Marketing Management
Jackson, T., and Artola, M. C. (1997). ‘Ethical Beliefs and Management Behaviour: A
Cross-Cultural Comparison,’ Journal of Business Ethics, 16(12), 1163–1173.
Marketing Research
Malhotra, N. K., Agarwal, J., and Peterson, M. (1996). ‘Methodological Issues in
Cross-Cultural Marketing Research: A State-of-the-Art Review,’ International Mar-
keting Review, 13(5), 7–43.
Services Marketing
Smith, Anne M., and Reynolds, Nina L. (2001). ‘Measuring Cross-Cultural Service
Quality: A Framework for Assessment,’ International Marketing Review, 19(5), 450–
472.
International Marketing
Kaynak, Erdener (1999). ‘Cross-National and Cross-Cultural Issues in Food Market-
ing: Past, Present and Future,’ Journal of International Food and Agribusiness Market-
ing, 10(4), 1–11.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Rugimbana, R., and Nwankwo, S. (2003). Cross Cultural Marketing. London: Thomson
Learning.
139 customer equity
Hofstede, Geert H. (1980). Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-
Related Values. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
cross-elasticity of demand see elasticity of demand
cross-marketing see cooperative marketing
cultural marketing see multicultural marketing
custom marketing see one-to-one marketing
customer-centric marketing see customer-oriented marketing
customer equity
DESCRIPTION
The value to a firm of its entire set of customers for the duration of their
relationships with the firm.
KEY INSIGHTS
Customer equity equates to a firm’s net ownership interest of its cus-
tomers as indicated by their overall value to the firm. Given that each
customer has a lifetime value, or customer lifetime value, where a firm is
able to estimate a value to the stream of purchases the consumer is likely
to make over the duration of their relationship with the firm, customer
equity can be viewed as the summation of the customer lifetime values
of individual customers. As such, an explicit or implicit objective of the
firm may be to maximize customer equity, either at a very broad level
or at a more detailed level by basing marketing efforts on a function of
the customer lifetime value of each individual customer. With the latter
approach, marketers seek to calculate and manage customer lifetime
values by taking into account such factors as acquisition costs, retention
costs, time period of customer relationship, revenue, and profit margins.
KEY WORDS Customer value, customer relationships
IMPLICATIONS
Customer equity and customer lifetime values are influenced by many
factors which vary in the degree they are controllable by the marketer.
Vibrant competition in some service industries, such as mobile telecom-
munication services, may be characterized by high churn rates, where
customers frequently come and go, leading to short time periods for
customer relationships. Nevertheless, operating on the assumption that
it is usually less costly to keep a customer than to acquire a new one,
many marketers recognize a benefit in pursuing marketing approaches
aimed at customer retention as a way to extend customer lifetime values
and, hence, enhance customer equity, where it is explicitly calculated or
simply held as a strategic focus of the firm.