Concise Hydrology
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CONCISE HYDROLOGY
DAWEI HAN
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Dawei Han
Concise Hydrology
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Concise Hydrology
© 2010 Dawei Han & Ventus Publishing ApS
ISBN 978-87-7681-536-3
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Concise Hydrology
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Contents
Content
Preface 10
1. Introduction 11
1.1 Hydrological Cycle 11
1.2 Key Hydrological Processes 12
1.3 Common Units 13
1.4 Water Distribution in Space and Time 13
1.5 Water Balance 14
1.6 Catchment 16
1.7 Practice 16
2. Precipitation 22
2.1 Atmosphere Water 22
2.2 Precipitation Types 22
2.3 Rain drop size and velocity 23
2.4 Precipitation data 24
2.5 Double Mass Curve 25
2.6 Areal Rainfall 28
2.6.1 Arithmetic Mean 28
2.6.2 Thiessen Polygon Method 28
2.6.3 Isohyetal Method 30
2.6.4 Geostatistics 31
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3. Evaporation and Evapotranspiration 38
3.1 Relevant Basic Terms 38
3.1.1 Flux 38
3.1.2 Radiation emission 38
3.1.3 Net radiation 39
3.1.4 Vapour pressure and relative humidity 39
3.1.5 Sensible heat 40
3.1.6 Latent heat 41
3.2 Evaporation from Open Water Surface 41
3.2.1 Energy balance method 41
3.2.2 Aerodynamic method 42
3.2.3 Combined method 43
3.3 Evapotranspiration from Land 43
3.4 Field measurements 45
3.4.1 Pan 45
3.4.2 Lysimeter 46
3.4.3 Eddy covariance 46
3.4.4 Catchment/reservoir water balance 46
4. Infi ltration 51
4.1 Relevant Basic Terms 51
4.1.1 Porosity 51
4.1.2 Soil moisture content 51
4.1.3 Vadose zone (unsaturated zone) 52
4.1.4 Field capacity 52
4.1.5 Soil moisture defi cit (SMD) 52
4.1.6 Darcy’s law (saturated soil) 52
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4.1.7 Pore velocity in soil 52
4.1.8 Darcy’s law (unsaturated soil) 52
4.2 Infi ltration Process 54
4.3 Estimation of Infi ltration Rate 55
4.3.1 Horton’s Equation (1940) 55
4.3.2 Index 57
4.3.1 Green-Ampt method 59
4.4 Infi ltration measurements 59
4.4.1 Infi ltrometer 59
4.4.2 Artifi cial rain simulation 59
5. Groundwater 64
5.1 Basic Terms 64
5.1.1 Aquifer 64
5.1.2 Water table 64
5.1.3 Aquitard 64
5.1.4 Unconfi ned aquifer 64
5.1.5 Confi ned aquifer 65
5.1.6 Artesian aquifer/well 65
5.1.7 Water well 65
5.1.8 Borehole 65
5.1.9 Piezometric surface 65
5.1.10 Base fl ow 65
5.1.11 Groundwater Recharge 65
5.1.12 Fossil water 65
5.2 Characteristics of Confi ned/Unconfi ned Groundwater 66
5.3 The Basic Flow Equations 67
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5.4 Steady Flow 68
5.4.1 Unconfi ned fl ow to a well 68
5.4.2 Confi ned fl ow to a well 70
5.5 Unsteady Flow 71
5.6 Computer Software 71
5.6.1 MODFLOW 71
5.6.2 FEFLOW 72
5.6.3 MIKE SHE 73
6. Hydrograph 77
6.1 Basic Terms 77
6.1.1 River Runoff 77
6.1.2 Infi ltration excess runoff 77
6.1.3 Saturation excess runoff 78
6.1.4 Direct runoff 78
6.1.5 Hydrograph components 79
6.2 Flow Event Separation 79
6.3 Direct Runoff and Base Flow Separation 80
6.4 Effective Rainfall (Net Rainfall) 82
6.4.1 The Φ index method 82
6.4.2 The initial and continuing losses 83
6.4.3 The proportional losses 83
6.4.4 Soil moisture accounting scheme 83
6.5 Direct Runoff Modelling (Unit Hydrograph) 84
6.5.1 Unit hydrograph defi nition 84
6.5.2 Unit hydrograph application 85
6.5.3 Unit hydrograph estimation 87
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6.5.4 Unit hydrograph duration change (S-Curve) 88
6.5.5 Synthetic unit hydrograph 89
7. Flow Routing 93
7.1 Basic Equations 94
7.2 River Flow Routing (The Muskingum Method) 94
7.2.1 The outfl ow equation 94
7.2.2 Estimation of K and X 96
7.3 Reservoir Flow Routing 98
8. Hydrological Measurements 107
8.1 Basic terms 107
8.1.1 Time series 107
8.1.2 Time domain 107
8.1.3 Frequency domain 107
8.1.4 Spatial data 107
8.1.5 Spatial time series 107
8.1.6 Aliasing 108
8.1.7 Nyquist frequency 109
8.2 Land based measurements 109
8.2.1 Rain gauge 109
8.2.2 Snow pillow 110
8.2.3 Evaporation pan 110
8.2.4 Lysimeter 110
8.2.5 River weir/fl ume 110
8.2.6 Soil moisture sensors 111
8.2.7 Infi ltrometer 112
8.2.8 Radiation sensors 112
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8.2.9 Anemometer 112
8.2.10 Air Temperature 112
8.2.11 Hygrometer 113
8.2.12 Barometer 113
8.2.13 Weather radar 113
8.3 Air based measurements 115
8.3.1 Weather balloon 115
8.3.2 Aircraft 115
8.4 Space based measurements 115
8.4.1 Orbit 115
8.4.2 Spectrum 116
8.4.3 Passive and active microwave 116
8.4.4 Validation 116
8.5 Transportable Weather Station 117
9. Hydrological Statistics 119
9.1 Basic Terms 119
9.1.1 Probability 119
9.1.2 Return Period 119
9.1.3 Probability relationships 120
9.1.4 Probability distributions 121
9.2 Statistical Flood Estimation 123
9.2.1 Empirical probability 123
9.2.2 General procedure for fl ood estimation 124
9.3 Statistical Rainfall Estimation 127
10. Hydrological Design 132
10.1 Reservoir and dam 132
10.2 Basic design procedures 133
10.2.1 Water demand 133
10.2.2 Catchment yield 134
10.2.3 Reservoir storage estimation 135
10.2.4 Dam height 139
Appendix: Further Reading Resources 144
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Preface
Preface
Hydrology is a branch of scientific and engineering discipline that deals with the occurrence,
distribution, movement, and properties of the waters of the earth. A knowledge of hydrology is
fundamental to water and environmental professionals (engineers, scientists and decision makers) in
such tasks as the design and operation of water resources, wastewater treatment, irrigation, flood
defence, navigation, pollution control, hydropower, ecosystem modelling, etc. This is an introductory
book on hydrology and written for undergraduate students in civil and environmental engineering,
environmental science and geography. The aim of this book is to provide a concise coverage of key
contents in hydrology that is easy to access through the Internet.
The book covers the fundamental theories on hydrological cycle (water balance, atmospheric water,
subsurface water, surface water), precipitation analysis, evaporation and evapotranspiration processes,
infiltration, ground water movement, hydrograph analysis, rainfall runoff modelling (unit hydrograph),
hydrological flow routing, measurements and data collection, hydrological statistics and hydrological
design. The text has been written in a concise format that is integrated with the relevant graphics. There
are many examples to further explain the theories introduced. The questions at the end of each chapter
are accompanied by the corresponding answers and full solutions. A list of recommended reading
resources is provided in the appendix for readers to further explore the interested hydrological topics.
Dawei Han
Reader in Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Water and Environmental Management Research Centre
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Bristol, BS8 1TR, UK
E-mail: d.han@bristol.ac.uk
http://www.bris.ac.uk/civilengineering/person/d.han.html
January 2010