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TRADITIONAL FOOD TECHNOLOGY

S Sefa-Dedeh, University of Ghana, Legon,

Accra, Ghana

This article is reproduced from Encyclopaedia of Food Science,

Introduction

0001 The types of foods consumed by any population,

methods of handling, marketing, distribution, pro-

cessing, and utilization are deeply rooted in tradition

and experience. In Africa, the conversion of the bulk

of agricultural produce into forms readily utilizable

by the population is achieved using simple indigenous

methods. The technologies applied may be classified

as traditional because they have strong links with the

rural traditional environment. These technologies are

also used in the towns and cities. The scientific prin-

ciples behind the various unit operations may be the

same as found in modern food technologies, but the

mode of application may be different.

0002 In general, traditional food technology may be

conceived as encompassing the methods and tools

used to transform agricultural commodities into inter-

mediate or finished products. Many innovative tech-

niques are applied to achieve various objectives and

provide a wide variety of products which contribute

to the curtailment of postharvest losses and national

food delivery. Traditional food technology in many

cases affects the economic and social life of the oper-

ators and may contribute to family nutritional status.

Examples of these technologies found in Africa are

described below.

Cereal Processing

0003 The processing of cereals is very important with re-

spect to the quantity, type, and quality of products.

Table 1 is a summary of processing methods for

selected cereal foods. Important unit operations in-

clude soaking in water, size reduction, aflatization,

aging or fermentation, cooking, and packaging.

(See Cereals: Contribution to the Diet; Dietary Im-

portance.)

0004Soaking allows imbibition of water into the grain

and also facilitates size reduction. The soaking pro-

cess may be prolonged for 2–3 days when dealing with

very dry grains and this may initiate fermentation.

0005The production of cereal flour may be achieved by

using manual methods (e.g., earthenware mashing

bowl, stone grinding, or mortar and pestle), or mech-

anical size reduction. Traditional mashing bowls are

made from clay and these have grooves on the mash-

ing surface to facilitate size reduction. Many designs

of mortar and pestles are available for different pur-

poses. The disk attrition mill is very popular and can

be found in many villages. (See Flour: Roller Milling

Operations.)

0006In the processing of some cereal products, such as

komi, maasa, and aboloo, approximately one-third of

the flour is cooked into a stiff gelatinized paste. This

paste is mixed with the remaining flour to form aflata.

The process referred to as aflatization is critical for

the development of texture in the finished product.

0007Three types of materials may be fermented in cereal

processing: the grain (soaking of dry grain), dough or

slurry (ogi, ga kenkey, fante kenkey), and wort ex-

tracts (alcoholic beverages, e.g., pito, burukutu, kaffir

beer, amgba, busaa, and kibuku). In most cases,

souring accompanies fermentation, and the process

allows the material to develop desired flavor, texture,

and processing qualities. Lactic acid fermentation is

known to play a significant role. The fermentation of

wort extracts in the production of alcoholic beverages

is achieved through the activities of yeasts. In Ghana,

some traditional processors apply an innovative tech-

nique to initiate fermentation in the wort extracts.

A woven belt, about 3–4 cm wide and made from

5828 TRADITIONAL FOOD TECHNOLOGY

strands of fiber, is used to trap yeast cells in the

fermenting wort. The belt, which is usually covered

with yeast cells, is dried in the sun after fermentation.

It is used repeatedly for inoculating fresh wort. (See

Lactic Acid Bacteria.)

0008 Clarification of the wort is also achieved by adding

an aqueous extract from the fresh stems of okra

(Hibiscus esculenta). This allows the sedimentation

of colloidal and suspended particles.

0009Food packaging is an important operation in trad-

itional food processing. The packaging materials are

derived from plant parts (Table 2). The material in

some cases imparts color and flavor to the food

(Figure 1). Methods of packaging vary.

tbl0002 Table 2 Packaging materials for some cereal products

Product Name Portion Condition

Abifo Musa paradisiaca Leaf Fresh, green

Agidi Marathocloa purpurea Leaf Fresh, green

Apiti Megaphrynium macrostachyum Leaf Fresh, green

Aboloo

Baked Megaphrynium macrostachyum Leaf Fresh, green

Steamed Baphia nitida Leaf Fresh, green

Domebla Zea mays Sheath Dry

Egblem Sterculia trigachanta Leaf Fresh, green

Esofoo dokun Sterculia trigachanta Leaf Fresh, green

Etsew Musa paradisiaca Leaf Dry, brown

Ewule bolo Musa paradisiaca Leaf Fresh, green

Fante kenkey Musa paradisiaca Leaf Dry, brown

Fonfom Musa paradisiaca Leaf Fresh, green

Komi Zea mays Sheath Dry

Ga kenkey

Nkyekyerewa Zea mays Sheath Dry

Nsiho Musa paradisiaca Leaf Dry, brown

Osino dokun Musa paradisiaca Leaf Fresh, green

tbl0001 Table 1 Unit operations in cereal processing

Unit operation

Product Soak Dehull Sprout Mill Slurry Dough Aflata Age or

ferment

Dry Roast Sieve Fry Cook Boil Package

Aboloo

Baked

þ

 þ

  þ

6,a

þ

Steamed

þ

 þ

  þ

7,b

þ

Agidi

þ

þ

  þ

þ

Aliha

þ

 þ

þ

 þ



Apapransa

  þ

  þ

þ



Apiti

þ

 þ

þ



Dzowe

þ

  þ



Fante kenkey

þ

þ

   þ

Fula

þ

  þ

4,c



Hausa koko

d,f

þ

 þ

4,c



Jolly kakro

1,2

þ

1,2

  þ



Komi akpa

þ

 þ

  þ

6,b

þ

Maasa

d,e,f

þ

  þ



Nmeda

þ

  þ

þ

 þ



Ahei

þ

 þ

þ

 þ



Pito

þ

þ

þ

Ogi

þ

 þ



Injera

  þ

þ

  þ



Komi

þ

þ

   þ

Egblem

þ

þ

 þ

þ

8,a

þ

Esofoo dokon

þ

þ

   þ

Nsiho

þ

 þ

þ

1–8

, Sequence of unit operations; þ unit operation used;  unit operation not used.

Baking;

Steaming;

Slurry cooked to thick paste;

Maize.

Millet;

Sorghum;

Rice;

Teff.

TRADITIONAL FOOD TECHNOLOGY 5829

Root Crop Processing

0010 Root crops, such as cassava (Manihot esculenta

Crantz), yam (Dioscorea spp.) and cocoyams (Xan-

thosoma spp. and Colocassia spp.), are important in

the African diet. They form the bulk of the starchy

staples utilized by the majority of the population. A

variety of products are made from root crops. These

may be classified into two groups: those processed ex-

clusively from root crops, and those processed from

root crops and other commodities (Table 3).

0011 For most products, the processing technology may

be at a rudimentary stage using simple techniques and

implements; most are home-based operations. Table 4

is a summary of processing methods applied to root

crops. Soaking, milling, or grating, fermentation, and

drying are important. These processing steps may be

applied to detoxify and modify in order to achieve a

desired quality and preserve the commodity. (See Cas-

sava: Uses as a Raw Material; Vegetables of Tropical

Climates: Root Crops of Lowlands; Root Crops of

Uplands.)

0012 Soaking of root crops, especially cassava, is widely

practiced. It serves as a means of detoxifying,

softening, and initiating fermentation. In addition,

soaking aids in manual size reduction. Size reduction

achieved by either milling or grating is an important

operation (Table 4), and is required in the processing

of many root crop products. The operation initiates

many biochemical (e.g., cyanide breakdown) and

microbiological changes in the products.

0013Inoculants are added to grated cassava in the pro-

cessing of agbelima in Ghana and attieke in the Ivory

Coast. The inoculant for agbelima is called kudeme.

It is made from cassava using different methods. The

peeled cassava is blanched, toasted, or soaked in

water. It is then wrapped in cloth and allowed to age

for 2–3 days, during which it develops a disintegrated

appearance. The inoculant is added as the raw cas-

sava is grated, and this is known to affect the texture

(smoothness) and promote fermentation.

0014Fermentation of root crops, especially cassava, is

an important unit operation in processing (Table 4).

The process contributes to flavor (souring) and tex-

ture development, as well as the detoxification (cyan-

ide reduction) of the product. The detoxification is

achieved through the activity of microorganisms or

endogenous enzymes in the root crops.

(a)

(b)

(d)

(c)

fig0001 Figure 1 Packaged cereal products: (a) esofoo dokon wrapped

in the fresh leaves of Sterculia trigachanta; (b) esofoo dokon,

unwrapped; (c) nsiho wrapped in dry leaves of Musa para-dis-

iaca; (d) nsiho, unwrapped. Reproduced from Traditional Food

Technology, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and

Nutrition, Macrae R, Robinson RK and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993,

Academic Press.

tbl0003Table 3 Some products from root crops and some from root

crops and other commodities

Product Commodity Country

From root crops

Agbelima Cassava Ghana

Agbeli kakro Cassava Ghana

Ampesi Yam Ghana

Cocoyam

Cassava

Sweet potato

Fufu Cassava Nigeria

Kokonte Cassava Ghana

Lafun Cassava Nigeria

Mogo oledo Cassava Uganda

Tapioca Cassava Ghana and Togo

Akyeke Cassava Ghana

Attieke Cassava Ivory Coast

Eputu Cassava Ghana

Fufu Yam Ghana

Gari Cassava West Africa

Kwonmogo Cassava Uganda

Mogo obulo Cassava Uganda

Yakeyake Cassava Ghana and Togo

From root crops plus other commodities

Aboloo Maize and sweet potato Ghana

Akple Cassava and maize Ghana

Fufu Plaintain and cassava Ghana

Cocoyam and cassava

Kwonkal Cassava and millet Uganda

Akankye Plaintain and cassava Ghana

Banku Cassava and maize Ghana

Komi akpa Maize and sweet potato Ghana

Mutama Cassava and sorghum Uganda

5830 TRADITIONAL FOOD TECHNOLOGY

0015 Simple methods are used at the village level to

dewater grated root crop products. These include

the placing of heavy stones on the fermenting mash

packed in a sack, or pressing the liquid with a manu-

ally operated press (Figure 2).

0016 Drying of root crops is widely practiced in Africa.

Peeled cassava chips are placed in the sun to dry for

periods of 3–10 days. The conditions for drying vary

and the product may develop characteristic color and

flavor. (See Drying: Drying Using Natural Radiation.)

Fish Processing

0017 Fish processing is carried out mainly by artisanal fish

processors. The major products are dried, salted,

fermented, and smoked fish. Table 5 is a summary

of unit operations that may be applied in fish process-

ing. (See Fish: Processing.)

0018The high perishability of fish demands that it is

handled properly immediately after catching and

until it is preserved for human consumption. The

traditional technologies available for fish processing

contribute to the reduction of postharvest losses.

0019The operations of importance in fish processing are

washing, degutting, salting, fermentation, drying,

and smoking. These operations contribute to the de-

velopment of flavor, texture, color, and improved

storage characteristics of the products. Different

salting systems are used in traditional fish processing,

e.g., dry salting and brine salting.

0020Salting serves to impart flavor and color to fish and

has a profound effect on texture. Salted, fermented,

or fresh fish may be dried in the sun to reduce

the moisture content. In addition, fish may be dried

without salting; examples are trigger fish (Balistes

forcipatus), anchovy (Engranlis encrasicholus), and

herring (Sardinella aurita). Drying of fish in the open

sun (Figure 3) may introduce various contaminants

into the product.

0021Smoking is an important operation used to give the

combined effects of preservation, drying, and cooking

to fish. Different smoking ovens are used. They are

generally constructed with mud (Figure 4) and may

be cylindrical or rectangular in shape. Recently, the

Chorkor smoking oven has been introduced. This

oven is reported to have a high fuel efficiency and

give increased yield. (See Smoked Foods: Principles.)

Oil Seed Processing

0022Oil processing is an important activity in many rural

areas in Africa. The major oils processed are palm oil

(Elaeis guineensis), palm kernel oil (Elaeis guineensis),

fig0002 Figure 2 Dewatering of grated cassava for gari processing.

Reproduced from Traditional Food Technology, Encyclo-paedia

of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Macrae R, Robin-

son RK and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic Press.

tbl0004 Table 4 Unit operations in the processing of some root crop products

Product Soak Grind Inoculant Ferment Dewater Roast Steam Cook Dry Pound

Agbelima þ

 

Akyeke þ

þ



Attieke þ

þ



Eputu þ

þ



Gari þ

þ 

Kokonte þ

þ

þ

Kwanmogo þ

þ

þ



Tapioca þ

þ



Yakeyake þ

þ



Lafun þ

þ

 þ



Fufu (Nigeria) þ

þ

4,a

 þ



Fufu (Ghana)      þ

þ

1–6

, Sequence of operations (in some instances steps with consecutive number may occur together); þ unit operation used;  unit operation not used.

Sediment after slurry overnight.

TRADITIONAL FOOD TECHNOLOGY 5831

coconut oil (Cocos nucifera), groundnut oil (Arachis

hypogaea), and shea butter (Butyrospermum parkii).

Although some large-scale modern mills have been

set up in some areas, traditional technologies play a

significant role in oil processing. (See Ground Nut Oil;

Palm Oil.)

0023 Table 6 is a summary of the unit operations associ-

ated with traditional oil processing. The general ob-

jective is to extract as much oil as possible from the

tissues of the raw materials. Roasting is an important

operation in coconut, palm kernel, groundnut oil, and

shea butter processing. Simple systems are used for

roasting the raw materials. Other operations of im-

portance include aging, which is sometimes associ-

ated with fermentation. Boiling of extracts to release

oil is a popular operation, normally performed after

the extraction treatments, and salt may be added

to aid extraction. The major problem in traditional

oil extraction technology is the low yield of oil. (See

Vegetable Oils: Oil Production and Processing.)

0024In addition to oil, the palm (Elaeis guineensis)

yields a sap which is fermented to give palm wine.

Fermentation is achieved as a result of the activity of

fig0004Figure 4 Smoking of fish. Metal sheet (A) is used to cover the

oven during smoking. Reproduced from Traditional Food Tech-

nology, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutri-

tion, Macrae R, Robinson RK and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993,

Academic Press.

tbl0005 Table 5 Traditional fish-processing operations – some examples

Product Wash Soak Scale Cut Degut Skew Salt Age or

ferment

Dry Smoke Pack Drain

Salted fish þ

þ

þ



Salted fish þ

þ



Salted fish þ

þ

þ



Fermented þ

/þ

þ

  þ

þ

/þ

Fermented þ

/þ

þ

þ



Fermented þ

þ

/þ

  

Fermented þ

/þ

þ

þ



Smoked þ

þ

þ



Smoked þ

þ

  þ

þ



Smoked þ

   þ

Smoked þ

þ

  þ



Dried þ

   þ



1–9

, Sequence of unit operations; þ unit operation used;  unit operation not used.

fig0003 Figure 3 Sun-drying of salted trigger fish (Balistes forcipatus)

on straw. Reproduced from Traditional Food Technology, En-

cyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition,

Macrae R, Robinson RK and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic

Press.

5832 TRADITIONAL FOOD TECHNOLOGY

yeasts, bacteria, and other agents. Palm wine is drunk

in a state of active fermentation. At the village level

the product is tapped from the tree daily and is not

preserved. The quality may deteriorate with time. In

Ghana, palm wine is normally produced from palm

trees after they have ceased to give economic yields of

fresh fruits. The trees are felled before tapping. In

Nigeria, palm wine production involves palm trees

that are not felled.

Legume Processing

0025 Grain legumes consumed in Africa are processed

using traditional technologies. The products may be

treated in the following ways: soaked in water and

boiled; roasted; milled into flour; fermented; fried in

oil; or steamed. (See Legumes: Dietary Importance.)

0026 Dehulling of legumes is achieved using manual or

mechanical methods. When performed manually it is

very laborious, but the mechanical methods are not

widespread. This limits the use of legumes in products

requiring dehulled flour or meal.

0027 Milling to produce flour is carried out for many

products. At the village level this may be achieved

by pounding using a mortar and pestle. Multipur-

pose mechanical grinders may be found in some com-

munities and these are used for flour and paste

production.

0028 Fermentation of grain legumes is not widely prac-

ticed. In Ghana, two fermented legume products are

dawadawa and koligo. Dawadawa is made from the

seeds of the African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa). It

is a food condiment which is popular in northern

Ghana and Nigeria. Koligo is also made from the

locust bean.

0029 Legumes constitute an important source of protein

in Africa. The processing of foods containing blends

of legumes and cereals is practiced. These blends may

be roasted, boiled, or milled together. Nutritionally,

this is a good practice.

Meat Processing

0030Traditional technologies for meat processing are

simple. They generally involve salting, spicing, aging,

fermentation, drying, and smoking. Salting, drying,

and smoking of meat are very popular among trad-

itional hunters. Their products have a characteristic

taste and flavor and may be stored for long periods.

(See Meat: Preservation.)

0031The treatments applied to meat contribute to the

development of color, flavor, and texture. Tradition-

ally processed meats, usually game and wildlife, are

highly priced and have wide acceptability. Examples

of animals used for meat include giant African snail

(Achatina), grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus),

squirrel (Atlantoxerus getulus), and giant rat (Cricet-

omys gambianus).

Starchy Fruit Processing

0032Plaintains (Musa paradisiaca) and banana (Musa

sapientum) are starchy fruits which may be processed

in the ripe or unripe state. Ripe plantains, with their

characteristic sweetness, find wide applications in

the processing of various products. These may be

boiled, steamed, baked, or roasted after pounding

and mixing with other ingredients. Products such as

ablongo, apiti, kakro, etc, ukpo gede, and mri jinoko

are made from pounded ripe plantains. (See Bananas

and Plantains.)

Dairy Processing

0033Traditional technology is applied in areas where

animal husbandry is part of the social, economic,

and agricultural activities. Milk products are pro-

cessed for local consumption. (See Milk: Liquid

Milk for the Consumer.)

0034Dairy products are generally consumed sour or

curdled. In Kenya, for example, cows’ milk is kept

tbl0006 Table 6 Unit operations in traditional oil processing

Product Material Dry Boil Roast Mill Slurry Age Extract Filter Salt Pound Heat

Coconut oil Copra þ

þ

 

Coconut oil Coconut flesh   þ



Palm kernel Kernels  þ

 

Kernels þ

þ

 

Palm oil Fruits þ

þ

þ



Fruits þ

/þ

 þ

2,a

þ



Fruits þ

þ



Groundnut oil Nuts  þ

þ

 

Shea butter Nuts þ

þ

8,10

þ

3,5

Nuts þ

þ

þ



1–10

, Sequence of operations; þ unit operation used;  unit operation not used;

Fermentation for 72 h.

TRADITIONAL FOOD TECHNOLOGY 5833

in gourds for 2–3 days to allow fermentation, which

leads to souring and the development of a coagulum.

The fermented milk, called mala or ’milk that has

slept,’ has a sour taste and viscous consistency. (See

Fermented Milks: Types of Fermented Milks.)

0035 A product made from cows’ milk in Ghana is re-

ferred to as wagashi. This is made by pasteurizing

fresh milk. The stems of the Sodom apple, Calotropis

procera, are cut and a milky exudate squeezed out.

Salt is added to the plant extract and this is mixed

with the pasteurized milk. The milk coagulates and

the resulting curd is collected after squeezing the mix-

ture in a cloth. A similar product, referred to as wara,

is made in Nigeria.

General Characteristics

0036 The major executors of traditional food technology

are women. Most of them have a low educational

level, operate from family houses, and have limited

access to credit and improved technology. They need

to be assisted to contribute better to the provision of

healthy nutritious foods to the populations.

0037 The equipment and implements used for trad-

itional food technologies are simple. The labor input

is high and efficiency is generally low. Progress has

been made in upgrading some of the equipment to

make them efficient. In a bid to increase efficiency, it

is important that attempts are made to maintain the

characteristic quality of traditional foods; otherwise,

the improved technologies would not be readily

accepted.

0038 The products of traditional food technology are

very important in Africa. They provide the nutrients

required by the population. Some of the products,

however, have very short shelf-lives and there is the

need to improve shelf-life and build in convenience.

0039Other characteristics of traditional foods are the

variability in the process and generally poor quality

control. Some unit operations are inefficient, labori-

ous, and time-consuming. Despite these disadvan-

tages, the products will continue to play a critical

role in Africa’s search for solutions to the food

problem. For this reason, the indigenous traditional

technologies need to be studied and improved, and

food scientists and technologists have an important

role to play in this work.

See also: Bananas and Plantains; Cassava: Uses as a

Raw Material; Cereals: Contribution to the Diet; Dietary

Importance; Drying: Drying Using Natural Radiation;

Fermented Milks: Types of Fermented Milks; Fish:

Processing; Flour: Roller Milling Operations; Ground

Nut Oil; Lactic Acid Bacteria; Legumes: Dietary

Importance; Meat: Preservation; Milk: Liquid Milk for the

Consumer; Palm Oil; Smoked Foods: Principles;

Vegetable Oils: Oil Production and Processing;

Vegetables of Tropical Climates: Root Crops of

Uplands; Root Crops of Lowlands

Further Reading

Campbell-Platt G (1980) African locust bean (Parkia sp.)

and its West African fermented food product, dawa-

dawa. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 9: 123–132.

Hulse JH, Laing E and Pearson OE (1980) Sorghum and

Millets: their Composition and Nutritive Value,

pp. 396–478. London: Academic Press.

Oyewole OB and Odunfa SA (1990) Characterization and

distribution of lactic acid bacteria in cassava fermenta-

tion during fufu production. Journal of Applied Bacteri-

ology 68: 145–152.

Sefa-Dedeh S (1990) Harnessing traditional food tech-

nology for development. In: Sefa-Dedeh S and Orraca-

Tetteh R (eds) Harnessing Traditional Food Technology

for Development, pp. 7–14. Legon: University of Ghana.

Transmission Electron Microscopy See Microscopy: Light Microscopy and Histochemical

Methods; Scanning Electron Microscopy; Transmission Electron Microscopy; Image Analysis

5834 TRADITIONAL FOOD TECHNOLOGY

TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD

P van Beek, K Koelemeijer and D J van Zuilichem,

Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands

M P Reinders, Agrotechnological Institute (ATO-DCO),

Wageningen, The Netherlands

H F Th Meffert, Veluviaweg 3, Wageningen,

The Netherlands

This article is reproduced from Encyclopaedia of Food Science,

Introduction

0001 Until the 1980s, logistics was synonymous with in-

ventory control, production, and transport planning.

In later years, the coordination between departments

directly concerned with the flow of goods has attained

more importance, covered by the term integral

logistics.

0002 The task of integral logistics is to develop control

concepts for chain processes which avoid sub-

optimization of links and result in win–win struc-

tures.

0003 These chain logistics have to be based on knowl-

edge of the processes involved, added value and cost

per link, and a framework of obligatory and volun-

tary limitations. The flow of goods through the

consecutive links is defined by:

0004 The composition of intermediate and/or final

products.

0005 The production processes, and the protection

required.

0006 The allocation of added value and cost throughout

the links of the chain.

0007 The allocation of logistic processes in the chain

with respect to the final quality of the product.

0008 The structure of the flow of information between

the links.

0009 The principal question is how to control the flow of

goods to reach predetermined criteria of perform-

ance: flow time, cost, quality, level of service, flexibil-

ity, and added value.

0010 The application of logistic principles in the agro-

food industry has revealed specific characteristics

of the chains of activities. This has resulted in the

formulation of agro (food) logistics.

0011 The specific characteristics relate to:

0012 The variation of basic material in quality and

composition, within lots of primary products,

over the seasons. The final product must still

comply with firm specifications.

0013The quality of intermediate and final products is

strongly influenced by time and physical param-

eters (temperature, humidity, and atmospheric

composition) in the chain between producer and

consumer. Hence, there is a special need for

protection.

0014Packaging technology plays an important role in

the quality development of, as well as protection

of, foods. It also influences the design of processes,

size of units, and equipment for physical trans-

formation and preservation by heating, chilling,

or freezing.

0015The agrorhythm of the primary production must

be obeyed for biological and technical reasons.

Nevertheless, a constant flow of final products of

constant quality must be achieved.

0016The production of linked products in the case of

many intermediate and final products from one

primary product.

0017The high expenditure on logistic efforts to bring

the primary product in a suitable state to the con-

sumer, which can amount to more than 300% of

the value of the primary product.

Agrologistic Chains

0018While focusing on the agrofood industries, it should

be recognized that other segments of agroindustrial

activity form comparable logistic systems, including

fisheries.

0019Based on these considerations, agrofood logistics

can be defined as ’the integration of organization,

planning, and control of acquisition, transport, stor-

age, processing, and packaging related to the

movement of foods from the origin of the primary

product to the final destination at the point of con-

sumption.’

0020Information technology, storage and transporta-

tion technology, and process technology must be con-

sidered to play a most important role in the flow of

goods of agricultural origin.

0021Table 1 gives some idea of the mass flow in the food

chain to consumers in Europe.

0022The following considerations are relevant for the

control of chain processes for the distribution of food

(and feed) products.

Perishability of Products

0023The quality loss of primary, intermediate, and final

products requires the integration of quality models

into the logistic concepts. The final product has to

comply with requirements of warranted quality

TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD 5835

and availability. These requirements have to be

translated into actions within the links. Two main

parameters can be recognized per link: residence or

throughput time – a logistic parameter – and physical

condition, e.g., temperature – a technical parameter.

Generally, both fall within certain distribution

boundaries.

0024 The translation of requirements into conditions or

actions in the chain is of crucial importance for the

final result, in terms of cost and quality. Based on a

fundamental knowledge of products and transform-

ation processes, the cost-sensitivity of alternatives

which comply with the given quality requirements

of the market can be studied.

Autonomy of Actors

0025 Agroindustrial chains consist, in most cases, of a large

number of links, acting autonomously, and this

hampers control and optimization. Concepts have to

be developed which allow for effective control and

avoid suboptimization; realization of such control

concepts needs information technology. Effective

and efficient systems and procedures for the exchange

of information between the actors in the chain have to

be developed.

0026 Autonomy of actors and product perishability

require special attention for the following items:

0027 Modeling The impact of actions in the fields of

process, storage, and transport technology can be

evaluated with models that couple process param-

eters to product qualities. Technological models

describe the development of quality (of a lot) of a

product as result of flow time–environmental factor

distributions along the chain. By adding economic

information, such models are expanded to logistic

models, which allow quality–cost optimization

by comparison of various logistic channels. Such

integrated models can take account of economic

factors explicitly in terms of fixed and variable

costs, for equipment, labor and energy.

0028Telematics Rationalizing the exchange and process-

ing of communications by telematics allows improve-

ment of the competitive edge of enterprises by

increasing reach and/or flexibility. The investment in

telematics has to be balanced against logistic advan-

tages or savings in the total chain.

0029Logistic services In recent years logistic services to

the customer have become an important part of the

marketing strategy of companies. Many enterprises

concentrate on core activities, thus creating new op-

portunities for service industries. Although not spe-

cific to the agroindustry, this development increases

the number of links in the chain and therefore adds

to the number of actors, and consequently can hamper

control.

0030Audits, ad hoc or on a regular basis, of all actors in

the chain, or commodity boards of a permanent char-

acter, are important instruments in accomplishing the

necessary cooperation. Strong consumer preferences

for high quality and freshness strengthen the need for

effective control of logistic operations.

0031Operations research Agrologistics based on bio-

logical, physical, and economic sciences leads to

complicated problem solutions. Operations research

presents a common mathematical base whereby

quantitative models are combined and developed,

and algorithms are designed for planning logistic

structures and procedures.

0032These models are integrated together in decision-

support systems (DSS) for use in the development of

logistic structures in enterprises and chain operations.

Such models can be focused on the minimization of

specific or general expenditure, with fixed values of

performance criteria. The balance of fixed, location-

dependent costs, and costs of transportation is one of

the instruments of decision.

0033Logistic structures In comparison with general

industry, the logistic structure of an agroindustrial

enterprise depends more strongly on the primary

product, its properties and availability, and the

market for the final product.

0034Product design can be considered to be a most

important variable for the logistic process. The

composition of the product, based on primary and

intermediate products, and production processes

determines the location for production units for com-

ponents, intermediates, and final products. In add-

ition, telematics, technology and requirements for

tbl0001 Table 1 The food basket of European consumers, 1987/1988

(kg per capita per year)

Category EC UK Italy Netherlands

Deep-frozen and frozen

16 27 6 16

Chilled 207 218 177 232

Fresh and chilled 205 124 276 231

Nonconditioned 211 228 195 186

Total 639 597 654 665

Beer 64 81 16 86

Wine 43 10 72 14

Population: EC c. 340 million

Europe c. 675 million

Excluding icecream.

Adapted from: Agricultural Figures (NL) (1990) The Hague: LEI.

5836 TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD

production, processing, storage and transportation

determine the logistic structure of an enterprise.

0035 Models for the quantitative evaluation of the inter-

dependency between these variables and their com-

bined influence can be a powerful support for

decisions on strategic, tactical, and operational levels

for the structure and operation of agroindustrial

systems and enterprises. The fresh market, in particu-

lar, presents examples of the distribution of effort,

by translating the aim of a high quality level at the

consumer into actions in the links of the logistic

chain, e.g., to improve temperature management or

to reduce throughput time, or both.

A Systems Approach

0036 The characteristic of agrologistic chains appears to be

the rapid quality degradation that results from sub-

optimal environmental factors and extended lead

times. Logistical methods and techniques commonly

being used in other industries, such as manufacturing

resources planning (MRP) and optimized production

technology (OPT) cannot be applied directly to dis-

tribution networks for perishable foodstuffs. Control

of environmental factors and lead time in a complex

system is essential for the success of the total oper-

ation. The complexity of the distribution of food

products can be demonstrated by an aggregated

picture of the logistic system (Figure 1).

Logistics in Organization

0037 The management of an organization defines the goals

with respect to product quality (e.g., minimum qual-

ity level at delivery, customer service level). In prac-

tice, it proves difficult to implement this policy at the

operational level. The actors on the workfloor are

specialists in their field: sales managers, technicians,

operators, who all have different views of the target

of the operation. With conflicting aims in the differ-

ent echelons, the goals defined and agreed at manage-

ment level cannot be implemented properly in the

daily operation. In such cases, the creation of a

Logistics Department between administration and

operations departments can offer the necessary co-

ordination and integration of effort.

0038The management must be able to communicate

with, to coordinate, and to inspire the different

areas of science and technology, contributing to

agrofood logistics at the strategic, tactical, and

operational levels (Figure 2).

Logistic Processes

0039A systematic approach to logistic chain operations

reveals the basic tasks of conveyance of mass, energy,

and information from origin to destination. Trans-

formation and transport can be recognized as basic

characteristic processes: product transformation to

bring the material to be conveyed into a certain con-

dition, goods transformation to bring it into a shape

to comply with the requirements of the transport

processes. For agrofood logistics in distribution

networks, preservation processes and unitization

processes are important links to food and transport

technology. Packaging plays a role as well in both

goods and product transformation, for unitization

as well as conditioning (Figure 3).

Customer Service

0040Customer service links logistics to marketing. As the

output of logistic operations is perceived by the cus-

tomer in terms of products and services performance,

a marketing approach is needed to determine the

optimal level of logistic efforts throughout the supply

chain.

0041A logistic system contributes to distribution channel

profits by enhancing the efficiency of movement of

goods, insuring quality maintenance, and providing

time and place utility. In addition to a cost-oriented

Technology

Management

Information

Infrastructure Processes

MarketProduct

fig0001 Figure 1 The agrologistic triangle. ß ATO-DLO.

Management

Administration

Purchase Production Sales Inventory Expedition

Logistics department:

regulating, coordinating, allocating

fig0002Figure 2 Logistics in the organization of an enterprise. ß CIVO-

TNO.

TRANSPORT LOGISTICS OF FOOD 5837