Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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Essential Botanical source Plant part used;

method of oil

isolation

Principal producing

countries/areas

Approximate volume

of production

(tonnes per year)

Major consuming

markets

Geranium Pelargonium

graveolens,

P. r a d u l a

Green herbage;

steam distillation

China, Egypt,

union, Algeria,

Morocco

*300 USA, Western

Europe, Japan

Ginger Zingiber officinale

Roscoe L.

Rhizomes; steam

distillation

India, China *30 USA, Europe, Japan

Jasmine Jasminum officinale

Flowers; solvent

extraction

Egypt, Morocco 12–15 Western Europe,

France, USA

Lavandin Lavandula hybrida Flowering tops;

steam distillation

France, Italy, Spain,

Hungary

*750 USA, Europe, Japan

Lavender Lavandula officinalis

Chaix

Flowering tops;

steam distillation

Eastern Europe,

France, Spain

*200

;

Lavender, spike L. latifolia (DC) Vill. Flowering tops;

steam distillation

Spain, France *50

Lemon Citrus limon L. Outer peel;

expression

USA, Argentina,

Italy, Ivory Coast,

Brazil

2 000–2 500 Europe,

Switzerland,

Japan, Russia

Lemon grass Cymbopogon

flexuosus Stapf

C. citratus Stapf

Green herbage;

steam distillation

India, Guatemala,

China

800–1 300 Western Europe,

USA, Russia,

Japan

Lime Citrus aurantifolia

Swingle, Citrus

latifolia Tan.

Outer peel;

distillation or

expression

Mexico, Peru,

Jamaica, other

West Indian

Islands, Western

Africa

*900 USA, Europe,

Switzerland,

Japan

Litsea cubeba Litsea cubeba Fruit; steam

distillation

China 500–600 USA, Western

Europe, Japan

Mint

Corn mint Mentha arvensis L. Green herbage;

steam distillation

China, South

America

3 000–4 000 Brazil

Peppermint M. pip eri t a L. Green herbage;

steam distillation

USA 2 000–2 500 Europe, Japan

Spearmint M. spicata L. Green herbage;

steam distillation

USA 1 000 Europe

Neroli Citrus aurantium L.

ssp. amara L.

Fresh blossoms;

steam distillation

France, Italy,

Tunisia, Egypt,

Comoros

* 2 USA, Japan, UK,

Germany

Nutmeg Myristica fragrans

Houtt.

Kernels of fruits;

steam distillation

Indonesia,

Sri Lanka,

Grenada

120–130 USA, Western

Europe

Onion Allium cepa L. Bulbs; steam

distillation

France, Egypt *5 Western Europe

Orange, bitter Citrus aurantium ssp.

amara

Fruit peel;

expression

Jamaica, Dominican

Republic, Haiti,

Brazil

20–25 USA, Western

Europe

Orange, sweet Citrus aurantium L.

var. dulcis

Fruit peel;

expression

Brazil, USA, Central

America, West

Indies

15 000 USA, Western

Europe, Japan

Palma rosa Cymbopogon martin

Stapf var. motia

Herbaceous tops;

steam distillation

India, Indonesia,

Brazil

60–70 France, USA, India,

Brazil

Patchouli Pogostemon cablin

Benth.

Leaves; steam

distillation

Indonesia, China 500–550 USA, Europe,

Switzerland,

Japan, India

Pepper Piper nigrum L. Berries; steam

distillation

India, Indonesia,

USA, UK

25–35 USA, Germany, UK

Petitgrain Citrus aurantium ssp.

amara

Leaves and twigs;

steam distillation

Paraguay,

Mediterranean

countries

280 USA, Europe,

Switzerland

Pimento (Allspice) Pimenta dioica L. Fruits; steam

distillation

Jamaica, USA 35–50 USA, Western

Europe, Russia

Table 1 Continued

Continued

ESSENTIAL OILS/Isolation and Production 2187

Quality of Distilled Essential Oils

0009 Conditions of distillation must be carefully estab-

lished and controlled according to the nature of the

raw material to ensure optimum, not necessarily

maximum, yields of quality essential oil. Extended

periods of distillation adversely affect the oil quality

and also the cost of distillation. The distillation

conditions must be established by trial in order to

maintain the quality of the oils and also to avoid

only batch-to-batch variation.

0010 The yield of oil depends on the efficient separation

of the essential oil from the steam/oil vapor conden-

sate. The distillation water also may contain a

variable proportion of the essential oil in colloidal

suspension or in solution. Its recovery is achieved

either by redistillation or by continuously recycling

the aqueous distillate through the still, and this

system is termed ‘cohobation.’ When the recovery is

incomplete or unsatisfactory by cohobation, the dis-

tillate is passed through a packed column of solvent

or codistilled with an immiscible solvent such as

hexane or pentane, and the solvent is carefully re-

moved by controlled high-vacuum distillation. Some

losses of low-boiling components will occur, and

these oils must be used with discretion.

0011 A modified frontal liquid chromatographic tech-

nique has also recently been employed for recovery

of oil from the distillate. Here, the distillate water

flows through a column packed with porous poly(te-

trafluorethylene), which holds on its surface 20% by

volume of a low-boiling water-immiscible solvent.

The solvent is renewed as necessary during the

process of distillation, and the amount of solvent

required is about 1–3% of the water volume. Essen-

tial oil is recovered from water distillates by this

technique at 500 l h

1

in a 30 cm 60 cm column.

Rectification

0012Essential oils are redistilled to improve a particular

property, to effect a higher degree of separation

and purity, or to concentrate or enrich a particular

fraction of the oil. Such redistilled oils are called

rectified oils. Traces of water, resinous materials, un-

desirable flavor notes, etc. may be removed by rectifi-

cation. The processing methods for concentration or

enrichment include, in addition to fractional distilla-

tion, solvent extraction, countercurrent extraction,

thin-film evaporation and molecular distillation. In

some cases, distillation followed by any of the other

methods is also employed for the desired fraction-

ation or enrichment of the oil.

Solvent Extraction

0013Heat-sensitive essential oils can be isolated by extrac-

tion using an organic solvent. Solvents used should be

of a low boiling point, free of odor and impurities,

and inert towards the oil constituents. Pentane or

hexane is preferred for flower oils. For spices, in

most cases, solvent extracts (volatile and nonvolatile

fractions) are more representative of the total flavor

than is the steam-distilled oil, which contributes only

towards the aroma. To obtain spice essence (oleo-

resin) extracts, solvents such as ethanol, chlorinated

Essential Botanical source Plant part used;

method of oil

isolation

Principal producing

countries/areas

Approximate volume

of production

(tonnes per year)

Major consuming

markets

Rose Rosa damascena

Mill., Rosa

centifolia L.

Flowers; steam

distillation

Bulgaria, Turkey,

Morocco

15–20 USA, Europe

Rosewood Aniba rosaeodora Wood; steam

distillation

Brazil, Peru 150 USA, Western

Europe, Brazil

Sandalwood Santalum album L. Wood; steam

distillation

India, Indonesia 250–350 USA, Western

Europe

Tagetes (marigold) Tagetes glandulifera

Schrank

Flowers, stem and

leaves; steam

distillation

East and South

Africa

*1UK

Thyme Thymus vulgaris L.,

Thymus zygis L.

var. gracilis Boiss

Herbaceous tops;

steam distillation

Spain 20–30 USA, Western

Europe

Vetiver Vetiveria zizanioides

Stapf

Root; steam

distillation

Haiti, Indonesia,

union, China

245–265 USA, Western

Europe, Japan

Ylang-ylang Cananga odorata

forma genuina

Flowers; steam

distillation

Comoros,

Madagascar

120–130 USA, Western

Europe, East and

South-east Asia

Table 1 Continued

2188 ESSENTIAL OILS/Isolation and Production

hydrocarbons, and acetone are employed, solvent

selection depending on the nature of the spice and

its flavor constituents.

Expression (Pressing)

0014 This method is generally employed for fruit peels rich

in oils. In this technique, the selected whole fruits are

washed and then crushed between rollers, and oil is

then separated from the juice. Also, they are automat-

ically handled in specially designed extractors that

recover both juice and oil concurrently. The oil col-

lected is washed with a spray of water and then

separated by means of a centrifuge. The method is

limited generally to citrus fruits (orange, lemon, and

lime). Steam-distilled citrus oils are usually bypro-

ducts of the frozen juice concentrate industry. The

oil may be recovered by distillation from the juice-

and-oil emulsion. The expressed oils and distilled oils

differ widely in their flavor characteristics.

Enfluerage

0015 Essential oils of delicate flower petals are prepared by

this technique. The method involves the absorption of

oil on purified fat on special pressing equipment. The

process is repeated until the fat is saturated, and it is

then removed and extracted with alcohol and recycled.

To reduce the time and cost of the process, hot fat at

40–60



C is also used for absorption of the oil.

Carbon Dioxide Extraction

0016 High-pressure extraction with supercritical or lique-

fied gas, e.g., CO

, is a relatively new technique for

obtaining essential oils without thermal or hydrolytic

deterioration. Thus, the product obtained by this

technique is without artefacts or solvent residues.

The use of liquefield CO

at 0–10



C and 8–80

bar results in a product devoid of fixed oils,

protein, waxes, chlorophyl and pigments. In the

supercritical state, the pressures generally used for

extraction of essential oils at 40–80



C range from

75 to 200 bar.

Considerations of Quality

0017The composition, and thereby the quality, of the es-

sential oil of a selected plant species depends mainly

on the nature of raw material used, the method of

isolation employed, and the oil’s storage conditions.

In distilled oils, differences in oil quality are more

likely to arise from variations in distillation time,

rate of distillation, efficiency of vapor condensation,

method of separation, and postdistillation handling.

Irrespective of the method of isolation adopted, to

produce a standard quality of essential oil, it is always

necessary to ensure that the raw material used is of

the correct botanical source and geographical origin

and that it is clean and free from contamination and

has been correctly prepared for oil isolation. Also, the

conditions or the relevant parameters involved in the

chosen method must be clearly defined.

See also: Flavor (Flavour) Compounds: Structures and

Characteristics; Herbs: Herbs and Their Uses

Further Reading

Considine DM and Considine GD (1982) Foods and Food

Production Encyclopedia. New York: Van Nostrand

Reinhold.

Dafesera DJ, Tarantilis PA and Polissiou MG (2002) Char-

acterization of essential oils from lamiaceae species by

fourier transform Raman spectroscopy. Journal of Agri-

cultural Food Chemistry 50(20): 5503–5507.

Essential Oils and Oleoresins: A Study of Selected Produ-

cers and Major Markets (1986) Geneva: International

Trade Centre UNCTAD/GATT.

Guenther E (1949) The Essential Oils, vols I–VI. New York:

D. Van Nostrand.

Heath HB (1981) Source Book of Flavours. Westport, CT:

AVI.

Rogers JA, Jr. (1981) Oils, essential. In: Kirk-Othmer

Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, vol. XVI, 3rd

edn. New York: Wiley.

Wilson NO, Ivanova MS, Watt RA and Moffat AC (2002)

The quantification of citral in lemongrass and lemon oils

by near-infrared spectroscopy. Journal of Pharmacy and

Pharmacology 54(9): 1257–1263.

Ethanol See Alcohol: Properties and Determination; Metabolism, Beneficial Effects, and Toxicology; Alcohol

Consumption

ESSENTIAL OILS/Isolation and Production 2189

ETHNIC FOODS

J Dwyer and O I Bermudez, Jean Mayer US

Department of Agriculture, Human Nutrition Research

Center on Aging at Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA

Introduction

0001 Ethnic foods are foods that are regarded as unique to

a particular cultural group, race, religion, nation, or

heritage. Consumers of ethnic diets often have cultural

but also socioeconomic, religious, or regional charac-

teristics that are distinctive. From the cultural stand-

point, ethnic foods serve as a familiar link with the

past and help those who are accustomed to them

maintain ethnic identity. Ethnic foods provide eaters

from other culinary traditions with opportunities to

experience new cuisines and cultures. They are also

important in designing or tailoring culturally relevant

nutrition interventions to reach nutritionally vulner-

able, hard-to-reach ethnic groups within the commu-

nity. In addition to being familiar, many ethnic foods

have actual or perceived health importance that may

heighten their appeal. Finally, ethnic foods provide a

platform for developing attractive new foods that

appeal to broader segments of the population.

0002 Foods that are regarded as ethnic foods in a culture

vary over time and with the degree of acculturation

of the group consuming them. Even within major

race and ethnic subgroups, many variations in ethnic

foods exist. Some foods only bear a passing resem-

blance to the original cuisine from which they were

derived. For example, in the USA, pizza, tacos,

chile con carne, and chicken chow mien are very

different from the Italian, Mexican, and Chinese

dishes that inspired them. Hispanic-Americans with

a Mexican-American heritage differ in their food

preferences from Puerto Rican Americans, whose

eating patterns involve a blend of Spanish, African,

Taino Indian, and continental American influences.

Similarly, Asian-Americans of Filipino, Japanese, or

Chinese origins have very different food choices and

traditions. Among the 300 different Native Ameri-

can groups, the staples and other foods that they

regard as unique and distinctive to their cultures

also vary. In the UK, foods from China, Japan, and

the Indian subcontinent are referred to as Asian food

whereas in the USA, they refer to Chinese and Jap-

anese cuisines.

0003 Most ethnic cuisines have been influenced by cen-

turies of food exchanges between indigenous groups

and immigrants from all over the world. For example,

the American cuisine is a multiethnic blend. No single

eating pattern has prevailed over all the others, and

no ethnic or cultural group has emerged with an

unchanged food pattern.

0004The traditional Mediterranean diet includes liberal

amounts of fruits, vegetables, legumes, and grains,

high amounts of monounsaturated compared to sat-

urated fats, moderate consumption of alcohol, liberal

amounts of fish, and low amounts of meat and milk

products. It has been associated with decreased risks

of coronary artery disease. Although there is debate

about the extent to which such a regimen is export-

able, some Mediterranean ethnic foods have become

very popular.

0005Ethnic food preferences and choices are important

aspects of the cultural heritage they represent. Some

of the many sources available on food-related aspects

of culture are summarized in Table 1; these include

both the cultural anthropology literature on food-

ways, cookbooks, and nutrition information mater-

ials that describe the foods and their uses.

Origins of Ethnic Foods

0006Table 2 describes the factors that are thought to be

involved in the development of ethnically distinctive

cuisines and ethnic foods. Nutritional anthropolo-

gists subscribe to various theories on how ethnic

food patterns have developed (Table 3). No one

theory appears to predominate at present.

0007Individuals in different ethnic groups have different

ways of categorizing foods, which are sometimes at

variance with medical views of foods as sources

of nutrients that are based on physiological and

biochemical characteristics. They may also differ in

their attitudes toward medical care and their health

behaviors, in their beliefs about the therapeutic and

preventive properties of foods, and the appropriate

balance between different foods. For example, there

are systems in various cultures that categorize foods

into hot and cold, or yin or yang – both classification

schemes that are based on properties other than

nutrient content (Table 3).

Ethnic Differences in Food Classification Systems

0008Cultures differ not only in the foods that are eaten but

also in how foods are viewed and classified by eaters.

Some of the relevant factors are listed in Table 4.

0009Ethnic groups vary in their foodways, social and

physical contexts in which food preparation, serving,

and eating occur. Food classification systems may

2190 ETHNIC FOODS

affect nutritional status because they cause the exclu-

sion of healthful foods or food groups from the diet,

encourage consumption of harmful items, or produce

a false sense of security among eaters that all of their

nutritional needs are met when in fact they are not.

Dietary Assessment

0010 Familiarity with ethnic foods is important for dietary

assessment. The foods themselves, their names, com-

position, portion sizes, and frequency of consumption

vary. Accurate assessment of nutrient intakes depends

on a knowledge of these factors. Some ethnic foods

may be especially rich sources of nutrients or other

food constituents, such as phytochemicals. Presently,

there is much interest in the possible health effects of

the traditional soy foods contained in many Asian

diets, which contain relatively high amounts of soy

isoflavonoids. These compounds have weak estro-

genic effects and have been associated with decreased

risks of coronary heart disease in some studies. Other

ethnic foods such as some home-brewed alcoholic

beverages contain contaminants such as heavy metals

that have adverse health effects.

0011Table 5 provides some examples of the importance

of using ethnically appropriate dietary assessment

tools. One challenge in evaluating diets that include

many ethnic foods is the appropriate choice of

methods for dietary assessment. Methods such as

semiquantitative food frequency questionnaires are

often designed to capture intakes of important nutri-

ents for those who conform to the predominant food

culture. These are often inappropriate for subgroups

with very different dietary patterns. Subgroup

members may call the foods by different names, con-

sume items not included on the food lists, or vary in

amount and frequency of consumption. The use of

such instruments to assess intakes of individuals with

unconventional dietary preferences can lead to highly

erroneous conclusions. Subgroup-specific food fre-

quency questionnaires that take account of these

factors are sometimes available, and when they are

these should be used. For example, well-validated

ethnic-specific food frequency questionnaires have

been developed for Japanese and Chinese-Americans

living in Hawaii, and for elderly Puerto Ricans.

However, for many groups, it is not possible to obtain

accurate information on intakes without further data

collection and validation of new food frequency

questionnaires. Some information can be obtained

by adding important ethnic foods to existing food

lists, but nutrient analyses are still likely to be inaccur-

ate, since consumption of foods within each food

group on the otherwise unadjusted questionnaire is

apt to be very different among those with ethnic

eating patterns than it is among those who consume

mainstream diets. Another alternative is to use food

tbl00 02 Table 2 Factorsinvolvedinthedevelopmentofethnically

distinctivecuisines

. Foodavailabilityconstraints(geography,climate,rangeof

nativeplantandunusualspeciesinarea)

. Socialfactors:migrant(bothvoluntaryandinvoluntary)social

structures,socialrelationships,socialstatus

. Economics

. Philosophical,religious,andmoralattitudes

. Individual factors

tbl0001 Table 1 Useful sources to consult on ethnic-specific foods, food

habits, and cuisines

Scientific journals

Journal of Food Composition and Analysis

Journal of the American Dietetic Association Ethnicity and

Disease

Nutrition International

Proceedings of the Nutrition Society

Appetite

Nutrition Today

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

World wide web

http://www.sallys-place.com/food/ethnic_cuisine

Oldwayshttp://www.oldwayspt.org/htm/meet/htm

Food-based dietary guidelines and graphics for ethnic

eating patterns

Ethnic cookbooks

Eating Well

Flavor and Fortune

Food Heritage Press (Duxbury, MA)

Time-Life series on foods of the world

Nutritional anthropologists

Organizations

American Institute of Wine and Food

Oldways Food Preservation Trust

Society of Ingestive Behavior

tbl0003Table 3 Theories on how ethnic food patterns develop

Theory Comments

Environmentalism Ethnic food traditions are determined

primarily by environmental

and external influences

Cultural determinism Humans mold their environments and

diets quite independently of their

physical surroundings

Cultural ecology Both culture and environment are

important influences

Cultural history Historical influences affect how foods

evolve and develop over time

Functionalism Foods are used to identify or place

people within society

ETHNIC FOODS 2191

records, recalls, or direct observation of food intake.

This permits exact descriptions of the amount, type,

and use of all foods, including unusual items. Food

records also provide information on how ethnic foods

are used in everyday diets. They identify differences in

food use that may exist between the subgroup and the

mainstream culture. Food records also provide the

information from which ethnicity-specific dietary

probes and semiquantitative food frequency ques-

tionnaires can be developed. For those who eat

many different foods in small amounts rather than

discrete portions of foods, or for those who eat from a

common pot, these assessment techniques are more

appropriate than food frequency questionnaires.

0012 A second problem in the dietary assessment of

ethnic cuisines is that nutrient databases for convert-

ing dietary intakes into nutrients for ethnic foods may

not be available. In research studies on individuals

who use many ethnic foods, nutrient databases that

include entries for ethnic favorites are needed to

obtain complete information about intakes. When-

ever possible, food tables that are specific to the

country or ethnic group should be used. Country-

specific tables of food composition and nutrient data-

bases are increasingly becoming available and these

are the best option. For individuals who eat largely

ethnic cuisines in countries where the parent food

culture is different, often special food composition

tables for the ethnic foods that are most popular in

mainstream diets are available. However, the recipes

described may differ somewhat from those that

members of the ethnic group prepare for themselves.

Even for ethnic foods that are included in nutrient

databases, food composition information may be in-

complete, inappropriate, or lacking. Moreover, nutri-

ent values for foods that are rarely consumed outside

of the ethnic group may be absent, especially if the

ethnic group is small. This is a problem with many

local foods consumed by Alaskan natives, for example.

0013The dietary assessment task is more difficult when

no country or ethnic specific food table is available.

Recipes made from locally available ingredients or

imported foods may differ in their food composition

from recipe values in food tables used in western

countries. For example, a typical curry dinner as

served in India, Ghana, and the UK varies greatly in

its nutrient composition. For this reason, country-

specific food consumption tables are needed. The

option of adding ethnic foods to the food com-

position database for the foods in question from

country-specific food tables prepared elsewhere is

not recommended unless there is good reason to sus-

pect that the foods are similar. Imported ethnic foods

and those eaten in the country of origin may differ

considerably both in their nutritive value and in other

food constituents.

tbl0004 Table 4 How food is classified in different cultures

Food habits Foods categorized as core, secondary core, or peripheral, depending on their frequency of

consumption

Gastronomic Foods versus nonfood, edible versus nonedible

Religious/philosophical Sacred versus profane, allowed versus forbidden

Opposing categories or properties Hot versus cold, yin versus yang, or other schemes for balancing food intakes to prevent or cure

disease. The important properties cannot be determined from their chemical composition

Medicinal Foods used as treatment for certain diseases or psychological problems

Social system Foods are viewed as symbolic of a culture or belief

Emotional significance Foods for the sick, foods for celebrations or special needs

Nutritional nutrients Chemical composition – by macro and micro

Hygienic Wholesomeness, cleanliness, freedom from environmental contaminants, microorganisms or

other toxins

Modified from Kaufman-Kurzrock DL (1989) Cultural aspects of nutrition. Topical Clinical Nutrition 4: 1–6.

tbl0005 Table 5 Examples of the importance of ethnically appropriate dietary assessment tools

Kristal AR, Feng Z, Coates RJ et al. (1997) Associations of race, ethnicity, education and dietary intervention with the validity

and reliability of a food frequency questionnaire: the Women’s’ Health Trial feasibility study in minority populations. American

Journal of Epidemiology 146: 856–867

Tucker KL, Bianchi L, Maras J, Bermu

dez OI (1998) Adaptation of a food frequency questionnaire to assess diets of Puerto Rican and

non-Hispanic adults. American Journal of Epidemiology 148: 507–518

Wheeler M, Haider SQ (1979) Buying and food preparation patterns of ghetto blacks and Hispanics in Brooklyn. Journal of the

American DietaryAssociation 75: 560–563

Winkelby MA, Albright CL, Howard PB, Lin J, Fortmann SP (1994) Hispanic/white differences in dietary fat intake among low

educational level adults and children. Preventive Medicine 23: 465–473

2192 ETHNIC FOODS

0014 The degree of error that incomplete entries for

ethnic foods introduce in nutrient calculations may

be large, so it is important to consider these factors in

interpreting the resulting information. Food compos-

ition tables should separate true null values (analyzed

and found to be devoid of the nutrient in question)

from simple lack of information (no analytic informa-

tion available). Before drawing conclusions about the

nutrient contributions of such foods, it is important to

ascertain how much information is missing.

0015 Some computerized nutrient databases now include

food composition values for imported ethnic foods.

When such values are not included, the best option is

to obtain representative chemical analyses of the

major food items that are likely contributors of the

nutrients or other substances of interest. This proced-

ure is time-consuming and expensive but it may be

necessary if the task is to describe the intakes of indi-

viduals who consume large amounts of specific items

of unknown chemical composition that are expected

to make valuable nutritional contributions.

0016 A third option is to use botanical and zoological

classification schemes and expert knowledge of

food-processing techniques to develop provisional

values for the likely food composition of unknown

foods. However, such estimates are usually very crude.

0017 In the past few years, some culture-specific inter-

active computer programs have become available for

some ethnic groups (e.g., Mexican-American, Chi-

nese-American) that greatly simplify dietary assess-

ment tasks. These programs include photographs of

various ethnic favorites as well as mainstream foods,

and common food names in both English and the

native language, and permit queries by typical meal

patterns. Expanded nutrient database entries that

include foods eaten in both cultures permit accurate

calculation of nutrient intakes.

Dietary Planning and Interventions

0018 Table 6 provides some examples from the recent

literature of ethnically appropriate nutrition inter-

ventions.

0019 The consumption of ethnic foods is at root a cul-

tural phenomenon but it has physiological implica-

tions. Sometimes alterations in eating habits are

necessary to achieve nutritional ends, but this is a

difficult goal to achieve. Food habits are among the

oldest and most deeply entrenched aspects of many

cultures, and they cannot be easily changed. When

they are changed, they often produce unexpected and

unwelcome reactions.

0020 There is no simple formula for success, but ethnic-

specificity and cultural sensitivity are important in-

gredients in crafting successful nutrition planning and

interventions. The expertise of nutritional anthro-

pologists who specialize in cultural anthropology as

it relates to food and foodways is helpful. Some gen-

eral principles that must be kept in mind are discussed

below.

0021Some foods are more important than others to

eaters. Foods in diets constitute a continuum or gra-

dient that consists of the core diet which includes

universal, regular staple foods; the secondary core of

foods that are used widely but not universally; and

peripheral foods, that are used infrequently. Such

groupings are useful in planning nutritional inter-

ventions since they often suggest opportunities for

making acceptable changes as well as possible pitfalls

that need to be avoided. Food habits are always diffi-

cult to change. The most resistant habits of all involve

foods in the core diet, especially those that are also

viewed by the eaters as ethnically appropriate and

vital to group cohesion.

0022The language used about foods, and the names of

favorite foods themselves must be used in recruit-

ment. Ethnic-specific nutrition information, recom-

mendations, dietary guidance, and education are

also vital if interventions are to be appropriate to

the dietary patterns and culture of intended recipi-

ents. In many countries, ethnicity, socioeconomic

status, educational level, geographical location,

religious, and ethical views are often confounded.

As these other factors vary, so will the appropriate-

ness of the intervention.

0023The importance of including ethnic foods in deter-

mining the ultimate acceptance of nutrition interven-

tions varies within as well as between ethnic groups.

In general, those who are the least accultured to

the larger mainstream society, those with language

barriers, the ill, the geographically isolated, the

economically disadvantaged, traditionalists, and the

religiously conservative may regard ethnic foods as

particularly important. Those who are innovators

and desire acceptance in the larger culture may regard

ethnic foods as less important. The degree to which

new foods are incorporated into eating styles varies

depending on contact between cultures, food avail-

ability, trade, and social status of the group introdu-

cing the food, as well as philosophical, religious, and

individual factors. Immigrants differ in the extent to

which they wish to remain unassimilated in their

foodways and true to their native cuisines. Ethnic

borrowing and mingling rather than rigid preserva-

tion of unique eating traditions often occur.

0024Ethnic-specific food-based dietary guidelines and

graphics to guide food choices are now available

that present nutritionally appropriate food patterns

in a culturally acceptable manner for many ethnic

groups. Many guidelines are currently available.

ETHNIC FOODS 2193

They have the advantage of including ethnic foods as

a part of overall diets. These guidelines are helpful as

starting points for developing population-based nu-

trition education materials for healthy persons.

Graphics that depict appropriate food choices have

the additional advantage of being understandable

even to those who may be illiterate.

0025 Special attention must be paid to the ethnic appro-

priateness of nutritional counseling for those who are

ill or in especially vulnerable groups from the physio-

logical standpoint. Therapeutic diet manuals are

sometimes available or obtainable that can be helpful

in designing diets that provide medical nutrition ther-

apy that is culturally appropriate.

0026 Additional useful techniques for crafting nutrition

information, education, and counseling interventions

include the use of ethnic and regional terms for foods

and recipes. Interventions should be adopted to be

culturally appropriate. Food preparation and cooking

demonstrations can be used to show how to incorpor-

ate recommendations into existing food patterns. Nu-

trition education and counseling should include

attention to ethnic issues. Community social struc-

tures in the ethnic group are helpful to make contacts

with the target ethnic groups.

0027 Those who develop nutritional interventions that

involve food enrichment, fortification, or special sup-

plements must also pay attention to the role of ethnic

foods and food patterns in the diet. In many cultures

the very target groups for such efforts, who are nutri-

tionally vulnerable because of their age, sex, eco-

nomic status, or physiological state, are likely to

have eating practices that are deeply embedded in

their culture. Persons in certain age, sex, or physio-

logical categories are often expected to avoid some

foods and to eat others. Nutrition counselors must

remember that care of the sick is heavily intertwined

with food and health beliefs, social relationships, and

acculturation. In summary, nutrition workers must

avoid cultural biases and ethnocentricity in dealing

with their clients in both dietary assessment and

planning.

See also: Dietary Surveys: Measurement of Food Intake;

Surveys of National Food Intake; Surveys of Food Intakes

in Groups and Individuals

Further Reading

Amler RW and Hull HJB (eds) (1987) Closing the Gap: The

Burden of Unnecessary Illness. New York: Oxford

University Press.

Bermudez OI, Falcon LM and Tucker KL (2000) Intake and

food sources of macronutrients among older Hispanic

adults: association with ethnicity, acculturation, and

length of residence in the United States. Journal of the

American Dietary Association 100: 665–673.

tbl0006 Table 6 Examples of the importance of ethnically appropriate nutrition interventions

Coates RJ (1992) Dietary intervention in low income, minority women. In: President’s Cancer Panel: National Cancer Institute.

Bethesda: National Cancer Institute: National Institutes of Health

Coates RJ, Bowen DJ, Kristal AR et al. (1999) The Women’s’ Health Trial feasibility study in minority populations: changes in dietary

intakes. American Journal of Epidemiology 149: 1104–1112.

Connett JE, Stamler J (1984) Responses of black and white males to the special intervention program of the Multiple Risk Factor

Intervention Trial. American Heart Journal 108: 839–878

Gorder DD, Dolocek TA, Coleman CG et al. (1986) Dietary intake in the MRFIT: nutrient and food group changes over 6 years. Journal of

the American Dietary Association 86: 744–751

Howard-Pitney B, Winkelby MA, Albright CL, Bruce B, Fortmann SP (1997) The Stanford Nutrition Action Program: a dietary fat

intervention for low literacy adults. American Journal of Public Health 87: 1971–1976.

Jerome NW (1980) Diet and acculturation: the case of Black-American immigrants. In: Jerome NW, Kandel RF, Pelto GH (eds) Nutritional

Anthropology, pp. 275–325. Pleasantville, New York: Redgrave

Koehler KM, Harris MB, Davis SM (1989) Core, secondary and peripheral foods in the diets of Hispanic, Navajo, and Jemez Indian

children. Journal of the American DietaryAssociation 89: 538–540

Kumanyika SK, Morssink C, Acturs T (1992) Models for dietary and weight change in African-American women: identifying cultural

components. Ethnicity and Disease 2: 166–175

McNabb W, Quinn M, Kerver J, Cook S, Karrison T (1997) The Pathways church based weight loss program for urban African American

women at risk for diabetes. Diabetes Care 20: 1518–1523

Nestle M (1995) Mediterranean diets: historical and research overview. American Journal of Nutrition 61 (suppl 13): 135–205

Meiselman HEI (2000) Dimensions of the Meal:The Science Culture, Business and Art of Eating. Gaithersburg, Maryland: Aspen Publishers

Pareo-Tubbeh SL, Romero LJ, Boumgartner RN, Garey PS, Lindemen RD, Koehler KM (1999) Comparison of energy and nutrient

sources of elderly Hispanics and non-Hispanics in New Mexico. Journal of the American Dietary Association 99: 572–582

Passin H, Bennett (1943) JW Social process and dietary changes. In: The Problem of Changing Food Habits. Council Bulletin no. 1908.

Washington, DC: National Research

Rozen E (1989) Flavor Principle Book. New York: Penguin Books

Trichopoulou A, Lagions PH (1997) Healthy traditional Mediterranean diets; an expression of history and lifestyle. Nutrition Review 55:

383–389

2194 ETHNIC FOODS

Broussard-Marin L and Hynak-Hankinson MT (1989)

Ethnic food: the use of Cajun cuisine as a model. Journal

of American Dietary Association 89: 1117–1121.

Brown LK and Mussel K (eds) (1984) Ethnic and Regional

Foodways in the US: The Performance of Group

Identity. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press.

Cassel J (1957) Social and cultural implications of food

and food habits. American Journal of Public Health

47: 732–740.

Davidson A (1995) The Oxford Companion to Food.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Eliades DC and Suitor CW (1994) Celebrating Diversity:

Approaching Families Through their Food. Arlington,

VA: National Center for Education in Maternal and

Child Health.

Gabaccia DR (2000) We are What we Eat: Ethnic Food and

the Making of Americans. Cambridge, Massachusetts,

USA: Harvard University Press.

Grivetti LE (1981) Cultural nutrition: anthropological and

geographical themes. Annual Review of Nutrition 1:

47–68.

Harwood A (1981) Ethnicity and Medical Care. Cam-

bridge, Massachusetts, USA: Harvard University Press.

Jerome NW, Kandel RF and Pelto GH (1980) Nutritional

Anthropology: Contemporary Approaches to Diet and

Culture. Pleasantville, NY: Redgrave.

Kaufman-Kurzrock DL (1989) Cultural aspects of nutri-

tion. Topics in Clinical Nutrition 4: 1–6.

Kavanaugh KH and Kennedy PH (1992) Promoting Cul-

tural Diversity: Strategies for Health Care Professionals.

Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Keys A (1995) Mediterranean diet and public health: per-

sonal reflection. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

61 (suppl): 1321s–1323s.

Kuhnlein HV (1989) Culture and ecology in dietetics and

nutrition. Journal of the American Dietary Association

89: 1059–1989.

Kumanyika S and Morssink CB (1999) Working effectively

in cross-cultural and multicultural settings. In: Owen

AL, Splett PL and Owen GM (eds) Nutrition in the

Community: The Art and Science of Delivering Services,

pp. 542–565. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Lyons GK, Woodruff SI, Candelaria JI, Rupp JW and Elder

JP (1996) Development of a protocol to assess dietary

intake among Hispanics who have low literary skills in

English. Journal of the American Dietary Association

96: 1276–1279.

Meiselman H (ed.) (2000) Dimensions of the Meal: The

Science, Culture, Business and Art of Eating. Gaithers-

burg, Maryland: Aspen.

Nestle M (1995) Mediterranean diets: historical and

research overview. American Journal of Nutrition 61

(suppl 13): 135–205.

Passin H and Bennett JW (1943) Social process and dietary

changes. In: The Problem of Changing Food Habits.

Bulletin no. 1908. Washington, DC: National Research

Council.

Pelto GH, Pelto PJ and Messer E (1989) Research Methods

in Nutritional Anthropology. Tokyo: United Nations

University.

Rozen E (1989) Flavor Principle Cookbook. New York:

Penguin Books.

Simoons FJ (1990) Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances

from Prehistory to Present. Madison, Wisconsin: Uni-

versity of Wisconsin Press.

Trichopoulou A and Lagios PH (1997) Healthy traditional

Mediterranean diets: an expression of history and life-

style. Nutrition Review 55: 383–389.

Tucker KL, Bianchi L, Maras J and Bermudez OI (1998)

Adaptation of a food frequency questionnaire to assess

diets of Puerto Rican and non-Hispanic adults. Ameri-

can Journal of Epidemiology 148: 507–518.

Williams RL (ed.) (1969) Foods of the World. New York:

Time-Life Books.

EUROPEAN UNION

European Food Law

Harmonization

P Berry Ottaway, Berry Ottaway & Associates Ltd,

Hereford, UK

Introduction

0001 With the signing of the Treaty of Rome on 25 March

1957, the European Economic Community (EEC)

came into existence with the founder members being

the six signatories to the Treaty: Belgium, France,

Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and The Netherlands.

With entries at different intervals over the following

25 years, the Community increased in size to 15

members with the addition of the UK, Spain, Greece,

Portugal, Denmark, Sweden, Ireland, Finland, and

Austria. The enlargement of the Community (now

known as the European Union) is expected to

continue with an anticipated 25 member states

by 2005.

0002In the Treaty of Rome, emphasis was placed on

consumer protection across the Community. Article

39 states inter alia that the objective of the Common

EUROPEAN UNION/European Food Law Harmonization 2195

Agricultural Policy is to insure ‘that supplies reach

consumers at reasonable prices’ and Article 86

prohibits undertakings from ‘limiting production,

markets or technical developments to the prejudice

of consumers.’

0003 Right from the inception of the Community it was

realized that to insure the freedom of trade in food-

stuffs there had to be common rules on labeling, food

additives, food composition, and food safety. Initially,

the emphasis was on food additives, with the first

directive being that on coloring matter authorized

for use in foodstuffs for human consumption, which

was adopted in 1962. This was followed 2 years later

by a directive on preservatives, which was adopted in

July 1964. Both these directives gave lists of the per-

mitted additives and controls on the use of the addi-

tives for certain applications. During this time, work

started on directives to control other groups of

food additives such as antioxidants, emulsifiers, and

stabilizers.

0004 In 1965 the European Commission published

its Recommendation 65/428/EEC of 20 September

1965 to the member states, which required prior

communication to the Commission, in draft form,

of certain laws, regulations, and administrative in-

structions. This included the notification of intended

new legislation or amendments to existing legislation

on foodstuffs.

Harmonization Programs 1969–85

0005 The next major step was the harmonization program

which was drawn up in 1969 following the Council

Resolution 617/69/EEC of 28 May 1969. This

included the drawing-up of a program for the elimin-

ation of technical barriers to trade in foodstuffs

that resulted from disparities between provisions

laid down by law, regulation, or administrative action

in the member states. The Resolution also introduced

the requirement for mutual recognition of inspec-

tions.

0006 The program that emerged from this resolution

was, in retrospect, too ambitious. It was divided

into priority groups with a time schedule of five

stages, 70 subjects were to be covered, and the work

was to be completed by 1971. Needless to say, the

schedule was by no means complete by this deadline

and there was another Council Resolution of 17

December 1973 that included a revized calendar for

the elimination of technical barriers to trade in food-

stuffs. This required completion of the program by

1978. Again, progress was far slower than anticipated

and a further revision was adopted in 1977.

0007 One of the main objectives of the harmonization

program during the 1970s was the development of

compositional or ‘recipe’ legislation, covering specific

groups of foodstuffs. This ‘vertical’ legislation, as it

came to be known, was considered essential for free

movement of foods and a large number of directives

were envisaged, each concerned with the composition

and control of a product category. By the mid-1970s,

over 30 categories of foodstuffs had been identified as

requiring recipe or vertical legislation.

0008The first of these directives was that on cocoa and

chocolate products, which is still in force, having

been amended numerous times. Although work

commenced on over 25 vertical directives during the

first half of the 1970s, very little of this proposed

legislation had been adopted by 1977. Most of the

delays were caused by lack of agreement between

the member states as to what was important for the

control of the product category. The degree of detail

envisaged by the European Commission was found to

be incompatible with the current practice in each of

the member states.

0009In 1977, one of the main objectives of the revised

program was to review the requirements for many of

the vertical directives and to stop work on those that

were not considered essential to the facilitation of

trade. The program required that the European Com-

mission concentrated on legislation that covered all

classes of food such as labeling, prescribed quantities,

packing by weight or volume, and purity criteria for

the additives already covered by directives. A number

of vertical directives that were at an advanced stage

were also to be finalized. These included the directive

on fruit jams, jellies, marmalades, and chestnut

purO

e which was finally adopted in 1979, the direct-

ive on coffee extracts and chicory products (1977),

and the directive on natural mineral waters (1980).

0010Of the other proposals for vertical directives, one

controlling the levels of erucic acid in fats and oils

was adopted in 1976. The directive on the methods of

analysis for determining the erucic acid content was

eventually adopted in 1980. Whilst these two direct-

ives were introduced for reasons of food safety, they

have traditionally been regarded as belonging to the

vertical legislation.

0011A directive defining edible caseins and caseinates

and specifying the chemical standards and labeling

requirements for these ingredients was adopted in

1983 after protracted discussions on the proposals.

It took another 2 years before the directive on the

methods of analysis was agreed and this was followed

a year later in 1986 by a second directive laying down

the sampling methods for the chemical analysis.

0012Except for directives on the methods of analysis of

coffee and chicory extracts, the sampling and analysis

of preserved milk products, and the manufacture of

fruit nectars, the only other vertical directive that was

2196 EUROPEAN UNION/European Food Law Harmonization