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Primary sources for the study of medieval warfare

Primary sources on medieval warfare are relatively few. One must include finds from

archaeological excavations, including underwater examples for naval warfare. We only

include works that for the most part are relatively easily available to the general reader, in

short, works that have been translated and printed.

Most records and chronicles may have some bearing on the subject but again we

exclude the broad run of such works and include only a few examples. We have also

attempted to find sources broadly covering our sections and to include a select few. The

general reader may well not wish to study primary sources but curious readers and

udding historians perhaps will. No secondary opinion can ever be considered perfect

and final, and the best way of reconsidering views is to return to the original evidence.

Roman writers on warfare had some effect on medieval warfare. They influenced

medieval chroniclers, who were among the few then able to obtain copies of their work

and read them. They influenced leaders who had education or had educated advisers. The

most telling example is provided by John of Marmoutier about his hero Geoffrey le Bel

of Anjou. At the siege of Montreuil-Bellay John tells us that, as the siege became bogged

down, Geoffrey took to reading the Latin work

De Re Militari

by Vegetius. In it he found

inspiration for how to proceed with the siege and eventually take the castle. A few works

on military subjects were written during the Middle Ages. Two outstanding examples are

mentioned. The first was amazingly by a woman, Christine de Pisan, who wrote on

chivalry and knighthood. The second, also unique in its way, was by a medieval king,

Jaime I of Aragón (1208–76). Jaime played an important part in the

Reconquista

and

recovered the Balearic islands. He wrote about his own campaigns in telling detail.

For the modern student the best approach is often through especially selected sources,

as in collections that exist for various wars and battles, reigns or periods, and some o

these are included.

zv320

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ailes, Adrian, ‘Heraldry in Twelfth-century England: The Evidence’,

England in the

Twelfth Century: Proceedings of the 1988 Harlaxton Symposium,

Woodbridge, 1990,

pp. 1–16

Alexander, Michael, ed.,

The Earliest English Poems,

Harmondsworth, 1966

nglo-Saxon Chronicle, The,

ed. D.Whitelock, D.C.Douglas and S.I.Tucker, London,

1961

Asser,

Life of Alfred the Great

with other sources, ed. S.Keynes and M.Lapidge,

Harmondsworth, 1983

Barbaro, Nicolo,

Diary of the Siege of Constantinople, 1453,

ed. J.R.Jones, New York,

1969

ayeux Tapestry, The,

ed. D.M.Wilson, London, 1985

ertran de Born, The Poems of the Troubadour,

ed. W.D.Paden Jr, T.Sankovitch and

P.H.Stäblein, London, 1986

Bonet, Honoré,

The Tree of Battles,

ed. G.W.Coopland, Liverpool, 1949

Brown, R.Allen, ed.,

The Norman Conquest,

London, 1984

Chronicle of the Morea: Crusaders as Conquerors,

ed. H.E.Lurier, New York, 1964

Commynes, Philippe de,

Memoirs,

trans. M.Jones, Harmondsworth, 1972

Comnena, Anna,

The Alexiad,

trans. E.R.A.Sewter, Harmondsworth, 1969

e Expugnatione Lyxbonens

ed. C.W.David, New York, 1976

Doukas,

The Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks,

ed. H.J.Magoulias,

Detroit, 1975

Einhard,

The Life of Charlemagne,

ed. L.Thorpe (English translation), London, 1970

nglish Historical Documents,

ed. D.C.Douglas, i, 2nd edition London 1979; ii, 2nd

edition 1981; iii, 1975; iv, 1969

Fantosme, Jordan,

Chronicle,

ed. R.C.Johnston, Oxford, 1981

Freising, Otto of, and Rahewin,

The Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa,

ed. C.C.Mierow and

R.Emery, New York, 1953

Froissart, Jean,

Chronicles,

ed. G.Brereton, 2nd edition, Harmondsworth, 1978

Froissart, Jean,

Chronicles,

ed. J.Jolliffe, London, 1967

Gabrieli, Francesco,

Arab Historians of the Crusades,

London, 1969

Gregory of Tours,

The History of the Franks,

ed. L.Thorpe, Harmondsworth, 1974

Hallam, Elizabeth, ed.,

Chronicles of the Crusades,

London, 1989

Hill, Boyd H.,

Medieval Monarchy in Action: The German Empire from Henry I to Henry

IV,

Oxford, 1972

Hutchinson, Gillian,

Medieval Ships and Shipping,

London, 1994

James I King of Aragón,

Chronicle,

ed. J.Forster, 2 vols, London, 1883

Joinville and Hardouin,

Chronicles of the Crusades,

trans. M.R.B.Shaw, Harmondsworth,

1963

Jones, J.R.M.,

The Siege of Constantinople, 1453: The Contemporary Accounts,

Amsterdam, 1972

King, P.D., ed,

Charlemagne: Translated Sources,

Kendal, 1987

Livonia, Henry of,

Chronicle,

ed. J.A.Brundage, New York, 1961

Morillo, Stephen, ed.,

The Battle of Hastings,

Woodbridge, 1996

Nicolas, Sir Harris,

The History of the Battle of Agincourt,

London, 1970

Nicolle, David,

Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom,

London, 1995

Nicolle, David,

Medieval Warfare Source Book, vol. II: Christian Europe and its

Neighbours,

London, 1996

Oakeshott, E.,

The Archaeology of Weapons,

London, 1960

Pisan, Christine de,

The Book of Faytes of Arms and Chyvalrye,

trans. W.Caxton,

London, 1932

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Procopius,

The Secret History,

trans. G.A.Williamson, London, 1990

Psellus, Michael,

Fourteen Byzantine Rulers (Chronographia),

trans. E.R.A.Sewter,

Harmondsworth, 1966

Riley-Smith, Louise and Jonathan,

The Crusades: Idea and Reality 1095–1274,

London,

1981

Primary sources for the study of medieval warfare 333

Sagas of Icelanders, The,

Preface J.Smiley, Introduction R.Kellogg, London, 1997

Siege of Caerlaverock, The,

ed. N.H.Nicolas, London, 1828

Simpson, L.B., trans.,

The Poem of the Cid,

Berkeley, 1957

Smith, Colin, ed.,

Christians and Moors in Spain,

711–1150,

Warminster, 2nd edition,

1993

Smith, Colin, ed.,

Christians and Moors in Spain,

ii,

1195–1614,

Warminster, 1989

Suger,

The Deeds of Louis the Fat,

ed. R.C.Cusimano and J.Moorhead, Washington,

1992

Thordemann, B.,

Armour from the Battle of Visby,

Stockholm, 1939

Three Chronicles of the Reign of Edward IV,

ed. K.Dockray, Gloucester, 1988

Upton-Ward, J.M., ed.,

The Rule of the Templars,

Woodbridge, 1992

Usāmah Ibn-Munqidh,

Memoirs: An Arab-Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period

of the Crusades,

trans. P.K.Hitti, London, 1987

Van Houts, Elisabeth, ed.,

The Normans in Europe,

Manchester, 2000

Vegetius,

Epitome of Military Science,

trans. N.P.Milner, Liverpool, 1993

William of Tyre,

A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea,

ed. R.B.C.Huygens, 2 vols,

Brepols, 1986

Wrottesley, G.,

Crecy and Calais from the Public Records,

London, 1898

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 334

Historians of medieval warfare and

recommendations for further reading

We have mentioned in our comments on primary sources that some medieval writers did

comment on warfare as a subject, such as Christine de Pisan and Honoré de Bonet. Here

we need to look at some of the main contributors to the discussion in modern times. We

shall only include printed books, mainly in English. Journal articles have often made

important contributions but we have restricted ourselves to books. The details of these

works may be found in Section 22.

It is probably fair to suggest that the modern history of medieval warfare took off in

Germany and France from the late 19th century. E.E.Viollet-le-Duc investigated military

architecture. Delbrück, Köhler and Delpech devoted weighty tomes to the subject o

general war. Delpech’s major work on tactics was published in 1886 after 11 years’ work.

It was soon followed by Köhler’s work. He was a Prussian general and was convinced

that western war owed most to the Byzantines. Neither of these early historians was

critical of his sources in a way that modern historians would expect.

Hans Delbrück (1848–1929) edited

Prussian Annals

and was Professor of History at

Berlin. He is perhaps the earliest historian of medieval warfare whose work still

commands respect, and is still available in English translation. Like many historians o

that age however he tended to get others to do his dirty work, reading sources and so on.

In England Sir Charles Oman is the early parallel, and he indeed owed a good deal to

Delbrück. His first slim volume was published in 1885, written while still an under-

graduate, but his heftier two-volume

History of the Art of War

followed, published in a

revised edition in 1924, filled out with extra sections that he wrote in ‘the long

parliamentary recess of 1923’. Another important early contribution from England came

in the field of castle studies from Mrs Ella S.Armitage, whose seminal work on early

Norman castles was published in 1912.

A new generation of historians provided more professional work, based on solid

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research. This does not mean of course that we need agree with all their conclusions. The

scope of study also widened. F.M.Stenton made a fundamental study of feudalism, first

elaborated in the Ford Lectures at Oxford, delivered in 1929 and published in 1932.

American historians became increasingly important in this field. Sidney Painter published

his work on French chivalry in 1940.

Post-war historical work has probably had more influence than anything earlier on

current historians, as war history has become increasingly academic in one direction but

also popular in terms of interest—

erhaps a consequence of the war. Ferdinand Lot

roduced his work on the military art in two volumes in 1946, the fruit of earlier work. It

contains much detail but seems rather obsessed by the size of armies, trusting too much in

figures that cannot be reliable. J.F.Verbruggen’s work on the art of warfare was first

ublished in Dutch in 1954 and later in two editions in English. He too had published

much work in advance of this his masterpiece, It concentrated on the details of battles. In

that same year R.C.Smail published his history of crusading warfare, a pioneering effort

that has since led to almost an industry in its own right. More recent basic information for

all students of medieval warfare is found in the volume by Philippe Contamine. These

works demonstrate the move from narrative in the earlier period to analysis which has

largely dominated the academic contribution to the subject ever since.

More recent work has tended to specialise more—on individual wars, campaigns,

eriods or topics within the subject. One can only mention a few works that seem

articularly important and be aware that one is omitting more than one is including. On

castles the work of R.Allen Brown, both architectural and historical, has been important,

as has that of Arnold Taylor, J.-F.Finó, M.W.Thompson and N.J.G.Pounds. Maurice

Keen has written widely but perhaps his two most influential works have been on the

laws of war and on chivalry—another growth industry, in which the names of G.Cohen,

J.Flori, Malcolm Vale and W.H.Jackson also deserve mention. In terms of period Bernard

S.Bachrach has added much to our knowledge of early medieval warfare. On the Anglo-

Saxon and Norman Conquest period the analytical work of Warren Hollister has been

invaluable. Subsequent contributions have been made by Richard Abels. Other recent

important work on fiefs and vassals is that of F.L.Ganshof, I.J.Sanders, B.D.Lyon and

Susan Reynolds. Many historians have worked on the military aspects of the Hundred

Years’ War, including Edouard Perroy, Kenneth Fowler, Ann Curry and Christopher

Allmand. John Beeler produced volumes on warfare in England and Europe. There are

many good books on the Wars of the Roses, including those by Anthony Goodman and

Andrew W.Boardman. Among the most important military works on the Crusades have

een those by Randy Rogers, John France and Christopher Marshall. On Byzantium the

work of Mark C.Bartusis and John Haldon is valuable.

Works on individuals and individual battles are far too numerous to mention but one or

two examples will suffice, where the military aspect looms large. Excellent examples are

John Gillingham on Richard the Lionheart and Georges Duby on Bouvines. Among

works on what one might call warfare topics, high on the list must come Frederick

H.Russell’s on the just war. Both J.O.Prestwich and M.Prestwich have added important

work on the financing of war. The technological side of warfare has found several

students, including Lynn White Junior and more recently Kelly DeVries.

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On mercenaries

we should include the work of Jean Boussard and Michael Mallett. Another topic to

attract interest has been warhorses, with work by R.H.C.Davis and Ann Hyland.

Oakeshott has pioneered work on the sword and weapons.

Yet one should not ignore the more popular works of history that focus on warfare and

help to keep awake a wider interest. Among these one should mention the work of Alfred

H.Burne on battlefields and on the Hundred Years’ War. Works on topics include

Geoffrey Trease on the

condottieri

. Richard Barber is not only a popularist but his

contribution to English history and chivalry has had wide readership. The collections o

chronicles and other material edited by Elizabeth Hallam are also useful for anyone

starting out on historical study. Robert Hardy’s work on the longbow has brought to

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 336

history many who knew him first as an actor. This last paragraph could be expanded even

more than all the others. I cannot name all those concerned in helping to make history

opular and of course there is no absolute line that excludes all academics from the

rocess. I express my own thanks to all those who have written books I have enjoyed and

hope their works will do the same for you.

Historians of medieval warfare 337

Bibliography of secondary sources and further

reading

Works that are particularly recommended for new students and make good introductions

are starred *.

GENERAL WORKS

Barber, Richard,

The Reign of Chivalry,

New York, 1980 *

Cantor, Norman F., ed.,

The Pimlico Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages,

London, 1999

Chambers Dictionary of World History,

ed. B.P.Lenman, Edinburgh, 1993

Chronology of the Medieval World 800–1491,

ed. R.L.Storey, Oxford, 1973

Cohen, G.,

Histoire de la chevalerie en France au moyen âge,

Paris, 1949

Contamine, P.,

War in the Middle Ages,

trans. M.Jones, Oxford, 1984

Delbrück, Hans,

History of the Art of War, iii, The Middle Ages,

trans. W.J.Renfroe Jr,

Westport, 1982

Delpech, H.,

La Tactique au XIIIe siècle,

2 vols, Paris, 1886

DeVries, Kelly,

Medieval Military Technology,

Ontario, 1992

ictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare,

ed. M.Bennett, Oxford, 1998

Dupuy, R.Ernest and Trevor N.Dupuy,

The Collins Encyclopedia of Military History,

4th

edition, London, 1993

ncyclopedia of World Histor

ed. F.Alexander, Oxford, 1998

Gardiner, Juliet and Neil Wenborn,

The History Today Companion to British History,

London, 1995

Hallam, Elizabeth, ed.,

Chronicles of the Age of Chivalry,

London, 1987 *

Hooper, N. and M.Bennett,

The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare, The Middle

Ages, 768–1487,

Cambridge, 1996

Keen, Maurice,

Chivalry,

London, 1984

Keen, Maurice,

The Laws of War in the Late Middle Ages,

London, 1965

Keen, Maurice, ed.,

Medieval Warfare: A History,

Oxford, 1999

zv326

Koch, H.W.,

Medieval Warfare,

London, 1978

Köhler, G.,

Die Entwickelung des Kriegswesens und der Kriegführung in der Ritterzeit,

vols, Breslau, 1886–9

Natkiel, R. and J.Pimlott,

Atlas of Warfare,

London, 1988

Nicolle, David,

Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom,

London, 1995

Nicolle, David,

Medieval Warfare Source Book, vol. II: Christian Europe and its

Neighbours,

London, 1996

Oman, C.,

A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages,

2 vols, London 1991 (first

published 1924)

Oman, C.,

The Art of War in the Middle Ages,

ed. J.H.Beeler, Ithaca, 1953

Painter, Sidney,

French Chivalry,

Baltimore, 1940

Prestwich, M.,

War, Politics and Finance under Edward I,

London, 1972

Russell, F.H.,

The Just War in the Middle Ages,

Cambridge, 1975

Stenton, F.M.,

The First Century of English Feudalism,

2nd edition, Oxford, 1961

Vale, Malcolm,

War and Chivalry,

London, 1981

Verbruggen, J.F.,

The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages,

2nd

edition, Woodbridge, 1997

White, Lynn, Jr,

Medieval Technology and Social Change,

Oxford, 1962

SECONDARY WORKS RELATING TO SECTIONS IN THE BOOK

1 ROMANS AND BARBARIANS, 400–750

Bachrach, B.S.,

Merovingian Military Organization, 481–751,

Minneapolis, 1972

Collins, R.,

Early Medieval Europe 300–1000,

2nd edition, London, 1999 *

James, E.,

The Origins of France,

London, 1982

Randers-Pehrson, J.D.,

Barbarians and Romans,

Norman, 1983

Wallace-Hadrill, J.M.,

The Barbarian West 400–1000,

London, 1952 *

Wood, I.,

The Merovingian Kingdoms 450–751,

Harlow, 1994

2 CHARLEMAGNE AND THE CAROLINGIANS, 750–850

Beeler, J.,

Warfare in Feudal Europe, 730–1200,

London, 1972 *

Boussard, J., trans. F.Partridge,

The Civilisation of Charlemagne,

London, 1968

Bullough, D.,

The Age of Charlemagne,

London, 1980

Collins, R.,

Charlemagne,

London, 1998

Halphen, L., trans. G.De Nie,

Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire,

Oxford, 1977

James, E.,

The Origins of France from Clovis to the Capetians, 500–1000,

London, 1982

McKitterick, R.,

The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians, 751–987,

Harlow,

1983

Munz, P.,

Life in the Age of Charlemagne,

London, 1969

Nelson, J.L.,

Charles the Bald,

Harlow, 1992

Riché, P., trans. M.I.Allen,

The Carolingians, a Family who Forged Europe,

Philadelphia, 1993

Winston, R.,

Charlemagne, from the Hammer to the Cross,

London, 1956 *

3 THE VIKINGS, SCANDINAVIA AND NORTHERN EUROPE, 850–1050

Arbman, Holger,

The Vikings,

London, 1961 *

Christiansen, E.,

The Northern Crusades,

London, 1980

Foote, P.G. and D.M.Wilson,

The Viking Achievement,

London, 1970

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Haywood, John,

Encyclopaedia of the Viking Age,

London, 2000

Jones, Gwyn,

A History of the Vikings,

Oxford, 1973

Logan, F.Donald,

The Vikings in History,

London, 1983

Magnusson, Magnus,

Vikings!,

London, 1980 *

Oxenstierna, Eric Graf,

The World of the Norsemen,

trans. J.Sondheimer, London, 1967

Poertner, Peter,

The Vikings,

trans. S.Wilkins, London, 1975

Bibliography of secondary sources and further reading 339

Roesdahl, Else,

The Vikings,

trans. S.M.Margeson and K.Williams, London, 1991

Sawyer, Peter, ed.,

The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings,

Oxford, 1997

Wilson, David,

The Vikings and their Origins,

London, 1970

4 THE ANGLO-SAXON INVASIONS AND ENGLAND, 450–1066

Abels, Richard P.,

Lordship and Military Obligation in Anglo-Saxon England,

London,

1988

Brandon, Peter, ed.,

The South Saxons,

Chichester, 1978

Campbell, James, ed.,

The Anglo-Saxons,

London, 1982 *

Henson, Donald,

A Guide to Late Anglo-Saxon England, from Aelfred to Eadgar II,

Hockwold-cum-Wilton, 1997

Holmes, Michael,

King Arthur, a Military History,

London, 1996

Kirby, D.P.,

The Earliest English Kings,

2nd edition, London, 2000

Loyn, H.R.,

The Making of the English Nation,

London, 1991 *

Morris, John,

The Age of Arthur,

London, 1973

Pollingston, Stephen,

The English Warrior,

Hockwold-cum-Wilton, 1996

Stenton, F.M.,

Anglo-Saxon England,

2nd edition, Oxford, 1947

Sturdy, David,

Alfred the Great,

London, 1995

Whittock, Martyn J.,

The Origins of England, 410–600,

London, 1986

Williams, Ann,

The English and the Norman Conquest,

Woodbridge, 1995

Wilson, D.M.,

The Anglo-Saxons,

London, 1960 *

5 THE NORMAN CONQUESTS IN BRITAIN AND EUROPE, 911–1154

Bates, David,

Normandy before 1066,

Harlow, 1982

Bates, David,

William the Conqueror,

London, 1989 *

Beeler, John,

Warfare in England 1066–1189,

New York, 1966 *

Bradbury, Jim,

Stephen and Matilda,

Stroud, 1996

Bradbury, Jim,

The Battle of Hastings,

Stroud, 1998

Brown, R.A.,

The Normans,

Woodbridge, 1984

Brown, R.A.,

The Normans and the Norman Conquest,

2nd edition, Woodbridge, 1985

Chibnall, Marjorie,

The Empress Matilda,

Oxford, 1991

Cronne, H.A.,

The Reign of Stephen,

London, 1970

Curtis, Edmund,

Roger the Great,

London, 1912

Davis, R.H.C.,

King Stephen,

3rd edition, Harlow, 1990

Douglas, David C.,

The Norman Achievement,

London, 1969

Douglas, David C.,

The Norman Fate,

Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976

Douglas, David C.,

William the Conqueror,

London, 1964

Kapelle, William E.,

The Norman Conquest of the North,

London, 1979

Le Patourel, John,

The Norman Empire,

Oxford, 1976

Loyn, H.R.,

The Norman Conquest,

3rd edition, London, 1982

Matthew, Donald,

The Norman Kingdom of Sicily,

Cambridge, 1992

Morillo, Stephen,

Warfare under the Anglo-Norman Kings,

Woodbridge, 1994

Norwich, John Julius,

The Kingdom in the Sun,

London, 1970 *

Norwich, John Julius,

The Normans in the South,

London, 1967 *

Williams, Ann,

The English and the Norman Conquest,

Woodbridge, 1995

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6 THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE AND CENTRAL EUROPE, 850–1500

Abulafia, David,

Frederick II,

London, 1988

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 340