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and was followed by the dictatorial reign of

Napoleon—who extended French dominion

through much of Europe, including an incursion

into Russia, and ventured into Egypt—many writ-

ers and artists lost faith in the future of the revo-

lutionary ideal.

COLONIAL ENCOUNTERS

Colonialism flourished in the 19th century

through a combination of new ideas and political

projects. The confidence of Europeans in the

superiority of their civilization reached its height

as scientific discoveries produced new technologies

and industrialization promised ever-expanding

markets. It seemed an obvious good to impose

European values on the rest of the world. Yet at the

same time science was undermining religious

faith, and people became aware of what was lost

when cities and factories obliterated the old ways

of life. Slaves, women, and the colonized discov-

ered that people’s rights as promised by the French

Revolution did not apply to them. Although Haiti

(San Domingo) won its independence from

France in 1802, slavery continued in the French

Caribbean until 1848, and France and England

continued to fight for domination over India,

Africa, and the Caribbean. Nevertheless, Enlight-

enment ideals continued to both support and

challenge the colonial enterprise of trade and

conquest.

Latin America

Financed by kings and queens vying for power and

national prestige, European colonialism from the

16th century on had justified itself in the name of

Christianity and civilization. Encountering people

with predominantly oral cultures and animist

beliefs, the first colonists of what now constitutes

Latin America imposed their religion and assimi-

lated or suppressed local cultural forms and lan-

guages, which they considered to be inferior. In

the 19th century, colonialism in Latin America

produced a unique pattern of cultural develop-

ment. By that time, most countries were con-

trolled by powerful elites who fought for their

independence from Spain and Portugal. The long-

ing for freedom was expressed in literature. Fer-

nandez de Lizardi (1776–1827), Mexico’s first

novelist, for example, satirized corrupt colonial

officials and contributed to the movement for

independence. Andrés Bello (1781–1865) of

Venezuela argued that Latin America would be

independent only when it had freed itself from

forms of government modeled on those of

Europe. On the other hand, Domingo F. Sarmien-

to (1811–88) of Argentina wished to eradicate

traces of both native and Spanish cultures and

replace them with northern European economic

and cultural models. By the end of the century,

most of Latin America underwent rapid modern-

ization with varying consequences and produced

varied, often cosmopolitan literatures.

Africa

When Europe colonized Africa, it encountered

hundreds of different languages and diverse tradi-

tions. The north and northwest had long been

influenced by Islamic and Arabic written culture,

and East Africa, open to trade with Indonesia and

India, had a rich multicultural history. Most of

this vast continent had a rich oral tradition that

included epics, legends, proverbs, genealogies, and

praise poetry. When colonial schools were set up

to produce local administrators and impose West-

ern cultures, African languages were marginalized,

but oral genres, many of which were then written

down, continued to modify and contest imported

European literary forms and ideas.

South Asia

European confrontations with ancient civiliza-

tions and literatures in Asia are complex in a dif-

ferent way. The establishment of the East India

Company by the English, which took place in

1600, was the beginning of the colonization of

India and the imposition of British cultural insti-

tutions. Until 1835, when English became the

common language of instruction, Sanskrit, Arabic,

and Persian were the dominant official languages.

The British gave their preference to the Sanskrit

tradition, with its Indo-European associations,

x Encyclopedia of World Writers, 19th and 20th Centuries

Introduction xi

and to Hindu culture, whose caste system approx-

imated their own class system. Sanskrit epics, such

as the Ramayana and the Maharabata, as well as

Hindu spiritual texts, were translated by and also

influenced many 19th-century European writers.

However, the dozens of languages and cultures of

the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka withstood

assimilation and continued their own traditional

forms of epic, drama, and lyrical and devotional

poetry.

The introduction of English instruction coin-

cided with the widespread dissemination of print-

ing, and English literature and European literary

forms were introduced to the subcontinent and a

new reading public. With English as the official

language, works in languages such as Urdu, Tamil,

Bengali, Telegu, and Kannada were translated into

English, giving South Asians easier access to each

other’s literatures. India had a strong epic and

mythical narrative tradition. The European novel

gave new direction to Indian writing. Rabindranath

TAGORE, the great Bengali nationalist, was awarded

the Nobel Prize in literature in 1913.

East Asia

Beginning with the Opium War (1840–42), China

was exposed to Western influences when it was

forcefully brought into the orbit of European

financial interests. Western and Japanese incur-

sions—including the sacking of Beijing in 1860,

the Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), and the Boxer

Rebellion (1900–01)—contributed to a critique of

Chinese conservatism, Confucianism, and the

power of the scholarly literati. In 1911, a thousand

years of imperial rule came to an end with the

establishment of the republic. May 4, 1919, became

famous for a new realist literary movement (see

REALISM) that broke with the past and turned

toward the West for inspiration. The language of

the common people, as opposed to the scholarly

language of the imperial bureaucrats, was increas-

ingly used as the language of literature, and under

the influence of countless translations from

European writers, particularly French, English, and

Russian, the novel became popular. Such writers as

HU SHI and LU XUN turned away from traditional

forms and looked to Western novels for inspiration

and renewal.

Japan is famous for its distinctive forms of

poetry, such as the complex linked forms of the

renga, which developed into the haiku, and its

indigenous forms of drama, such as the No and

Kabuki. It also has a long narrative tradition and

its own forms of the novel, the most famous of

which is probably the classic Tale of Genji (ca. A.D.

1000) by Lady Murasaki. Japan did not open up to

the West until it was forced to by the United States

and Commodore Perry’s warships in 1853. This

event had a profound effect on Japanese literature.

Japanese translations of European and Russian

novels appeared and influenced new expressions

of the Japanese novel, as in the works of NATSUME

So¯seki. [Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese

personal names are rendered in traditional East

Asian order, with surnames followed by given

names.]

The Middle East

Middle Eastern literature—Arabic, Persian, and

Turkish—was dominated from its pre-Islamic

beginnings by poetry, written by both men and

women. With the spread of Islam, the Qur’an

established a literary and aesthetic mood for Mus-

lim writers. In the 19th century, Europeans began

to look to the Middle East for literary inspiration:

French and English translations of The Thousand

and One Nights, a collection of stories from Persia

with Indian influences, had a profound effect on

the Western imagination.

At the same time, the growing imperial powers

of Europe undermined the declining Ottoman

Empire, which finally collapsed after World War I,

and introduced to the Middle East Western liberal

values such as equal rights and freedom of trade

and travel, as well as new genres such as the novel.

Modern and secular ideas were contentious from

the beginning: European aesthetics and progres-

sive ideas threatened traditional and national liter-

ary forms and were associated with political

domination.

Australasia

An aboriginal culture had existed in Australia for

at least 50,000 years before the arrival of the Euro-

peans. It included songs, myths, and stories, which

were orally transmitted. White settlement of Aus-

tralia began in 1788 with the establishment of

penal colonies by the British. Nineteenth-century

Australian literature, produced both by convicts

and free settlers, followed English models while

exploring new experiences of life in the bush and

outback. At the same time, aboriginal culture was

threatened with extinction. It was not until 1901,

when Australia won its independence, that a

strong national literature emerged.

The first British missionary arrived in New

Zealand in 1801, and the colony was formalized in

1841. The Treaty of Waitangi (1840) established

an uneasy peace between the indigenous Maoris

and the colonizers, but the oral language and cul-

ture of the aboriginal people inevitably declined.

British models dominated 19th-century New

Zealand literature.

EUROPEAN ROMANTICISM AND

ITS DISCONTENTS

The literary movement that best expresses the

aspirations, contradictions, and disappointments

of the turn of the 19th century is romanticism.

Romanticism began in Germany with writers such

as GOETHE, SCHILLER, and HÖLDERLIN. It was influ-

enced by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the critic of the

inequities of civilization, in his fiction and essays

and by Immanuel Kant’s ideas about the beautiful

and sublime. His Critique of Judgment (1790) had

a profound effect on romantic aesthetics. The

German mystical and idealistic tradition compet-

ed with the more rational and scientific ideals of

French thinkers and influenced writers through-

out Europe. Germaine de STAËL, the Swiss/French

intellectual and writer who introduced German

literature and philosophy into France at the begin-

ning of the 19th century, held that a nation’s liter-

ature is reflective of its forms of government and

its historical moment. Literature thus provides

insight into national identity.

Because classical ideals were embedded in

oppressive cultural institutions, romantic writers

often turned to the myths and oral traditions of

the Middle Ages, perpetuated in the folktales of

the people, for inspiration and a redefinition of

nationhood. Oral traditions seemed to offer a

social cohesion missing in a society that was frag-

mented by revolution and strife. Folktales by Ger-

man writers such as Benedikte

NAUBERT and the

brothers GRIMM were very popular. At the same

time, the romantic love of freedom inspired sub-

jugated nations, such as Greece, which was long

dominated by the Turks, to struggle for liberation

and revive their ancient cultural heritage. In both

Germany and France, the theater of such drama-

tists as Schiller and HUGO threw off classical con-

straints and advocated passion and rebellion in

the name of social justice.

Inspired by Enlightenment ideals of freedom,

most romantic writers were critical of imperialism

and slavery, but they were also fascinated by the

exotic, especially the culture of the Orient. Even

before the French Revolution, romantic writers,

such as Goethe, were interested in the spiritual lit-

erature of India. After the Revolution, the devel-

opment of romanticism coincided with a new

phase of colonial expansion in the Middle East

and North Africa. The Orient, often geographical-

ly vague and exoticized, came to represent the pos-

sibility of passion and escape from an increasingly

utilitarian and secular world dominated by the

pursuit of money and power. It provided not only

luxury goods and cheap labor but also, in varying

forms, a vision of sensuous fulfillment and respite

from the pursuit of profits. Parallel to romantic

exoticism was the romantic interest in nature as a

source of inspiration. Many elements of the

romantic movement were to reappear at the end

of the century in countries outside Europe,

including China and Latin America, as evidenced

by the works of the Brazilian Antonio

GONÇALVES

DIAS, who wrote about NATIVIST issues, that is, the

relation between indigenous peoples and the land.

A major theme of romantic writers, for exam-

ple BALZAC and STENDHAL, is the struggle for sur-

xii Encyclopedia of World Writers, 19th and 20th Centuries

Introduction xiii

vival of the sensibilities of the artist in a new world

of industrialization, material values, and the bru-

tal struggle for success. The defeat of romantic

ideals, which sought refuge in an idealized imagi-

nation, is often embodied in the novel. The fate of

the romantic hero who refuses the material values

of the new bourgeois world is often suicide or

madness.

THE NOVEL

Just as colonialism was facilitated in the 19th cen-

tury by rapid advances in technology, engineering,

and industrialization, improvements in printing

techniques permitted cheaper and easier publica-

tion of books. At the same time, the growth of the

urban population and extension of education and

literacy provided a growing readership. The serial-

ized novel, one of the great innovations of 19th-

century European literature, established this

literary form, variously defined by movements

such as realism and NATURALISM, as the dominant

genre. It became the place for discussion of every

important social issue. Filled with energy and

movement, novels by Stendhal, Balzac, Flaubert,

and Zola place an individual within the social

maelstrom and follow his or her development or

destruction. The effects of modern Western values

are more tragically explored in the Russian novels

of DOSTOYEVSKY and TOLSTOY, both affected by and

resistant to Westernization, who evolve an alterna-

tive to modernity through their different synthe-

ses of their own culture and interpretations of

Christianity.

The novel was one of the major exports of

Western culture to other parts of the world. Its

effects were felt, especially toward the end of the

19th century, in China, Japan, India, and the Mid-

dle East.

DECADENCE

By the late 19th century, the long advance of Euro-

pean modernity was accelerated by developments

in technology and capital-driven imperialism. By

1914, the reach of Western civilization throughout

the world was unprecedented. Although 19th-

century colonialism had reached its heights in

terms of appropriated land and affected cultures,

the system at home was under pressure, and its

crisis is evident in European literature. The great

Scandinavian dramatists IBSEN and STRINDBERG

explored the dilemmas of capitalist entrepreneurs

and the tensions of bourgeois marriage. Symbolist

poets (see SYMBOLISM) tried to lose themselves in an

alternate linguistic world distilled of the dross of

the everyday. The decadents (see DECADENCE) lux-

uriated in their disaffection with the bourgeoisie

and espoused the artificiality of the aesthetic and

technology. Misogyny and masculine symbols of

power were glorified in the theories of

FUTURISM.

Misogyny and racism flourished at the end of

the 19th century in Europe, bringing to a crisis a

process implicit in 19th-century social practice

and ideology. Colonialism, of course, depended

on racist beliefs in the superiority of white Euro-

pean civilization. The bourgeois family similarly

supported a dichotomy between the pure domes-

tic wife and mother and an inferior woman—

working class or prostitute—identified with the

fulfillment of base needs. There was no legitimate

place in this schema for the woman writer.

If the expansion of education brought more lit-

eracy to Europeans and missionaries exported lit-

eracy to far reaches of the world, the institutions

of literature were still owned and controlled by the

male upper and middle classes. Literature was not

considered an appropriate calling for a woman. It

was common for women writers in the late 18th

and early 19th centuries to disguise their identities

in order to be published. Benedikte Naubert was

successful in Germany when she published anony-

mously and was neglected when her female iden-

tity was revealed. George

SAND took the name of a

man. Still, women writers made a major mark on

19th-century literature, even though their contri-

butions were not always recognized or acknowl-

edged. With the crisis of the bourgeois family

structure at the end of the century, there was a

flurry of defiant women writers, such as COLETTE,

who disregarded conventions and claimed their

freedom.

However, the outbreak of World War I in 1914

severely challenged the hopes of the bourgeoisie

for progress and enlightenment, and the Russian

Revolution of 1917 signified the cataclysmic

beginnings of a new era.

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Twentieth-century literature began in disillusion.

Capitalism and the bourgeois family were in crisis,

and an optimistic faith in progress through

rationality and science was tested by the horrors of

war. The avant-garde movements of DADA and

SURREALISM, which emerged in the wake of the

World War I, rejected bourgeois civilization as

repressive and exploitative and gave value to the

world of the unconscious and dreams, as explored

by Sigmund FREUD. The war years and the 1920s

also saw the emergence of MODERNISM.

The modernist movement in Europe, while cel-

ebrating the autonomous sphere of the aesthetic,

had an acute sense that “the center does not hold.”

It sought carefully wrought and experimental

forms with which to respond to what many writ-

ers saw as the chaos and cultural decline of the

modern age. In their skepticism about civilization,

modernists such as W. B. Yeats turned toward

myth and the unconscious.

Although European modernism and the play-

ful and iconoclastic surrealism may have

expressed a crisis of Western civilization, both

seemed out of touch with the social and econom-

ic lives of ordinary people, especially after the col-

lapse of the stock market in 1929, a catastrophe

felt throughout the world. The avant-garde move-

ments that lamented the alienation of modern

urban life were countered by a very different atti-

tude to the future.

TOTALITARIANISM AND

THE SECOND WORLD WAR

Revolutionary writers rejected the past and looked

toward the liberation of the peasants and working

classes with renewed hope. The 1920s in Russia,

for example, saw a flowering of creativity among

experimental poets and filmmakers. However, this

euphoria was not to last. The lyrical poets

Vladimir

MAYAKOVSKY and Sergey YESENIN for

example, frustrated by political imperatives, com-

mitted suicide. The 1930s saw the growth of fas-

cism in Germany and Spain and the hardening of

oppression in communist Russia. Both fascism

and the communist SOCIALIST REALISM, the official

aesthetic, condemned experimentation and mod-

ernist literature and art as decadent.

The totalitarian regimes of Japanese mili-

tarism, fascism and communism targeted writers

whom they considered decadent or enemies of the

people. Writing against the grain of oppressive

political authority became, in the 20th century, a

dangerous activity. The Korean writer YUN TONGJU,

who spoke for Korean independence, was arrested

by the Japanese in 1943 and died in prison. Jewish

intellectuals and dissident writers were extermi-

nated by the German fascists. Books that were

considered dangerous were burned. For protesting

against fascism, Thomas MANN and Hermann

HESSE lost their German citizenship. Many others

lost their lives, including Federico GARCÍA LORCA,

one of Spain’s most highly revered poets. Rafael

ALBERTI, the Spanish surrealist poet, had to go into

exile in Argentina after the victory of fascist gen-

eral Francísco Franco.

Writers who lived during and after World War

II had to confront the reality that modern civiliza-

tion and technology had produced destruction

and cruelty on an unprecedented scale. The Holo-

caust, in which millions of Jews and other civilians

were exterminated; the mass destruction of cities;

and the nuclear devastation visited on Hiroshima

and Nagasaki seemed to defy the very possibilities

of language. The critic Theodor Adorno

(1903–69) suggested that after the Holocaust, lyric

poetry might be impossible. However, the horrors

of the Holocaust produced extraordinary poems

and testimonials in the work of such writers as

Primo

LEVI,Nelly SACHS, and Elie WIESEL. With the

establishment of the state of Israel in 1948, a new

literature in Hebrew came into being. Fascist

xiv Encyclopedia of World Writers, 19th and 20th Centuries

oppression also inspired an existential literature of

engagement exemplified by the writings of Jean-

Paul SARTRE, Simone de BEAUVOIR, and Albert

CAMUS. The unspeakable suffering of the war,

along with the stark reality of the cold war

between the United States and the Soviet Union,

created the climate for the THEATRE OF THE ABSURD

of the 1950s.

The Soviet empire that emerged from World

War II suppressed the national literatures of the

countries under its sway and, particularly during

the Stalinist era, imprisoned and killed its dissi-

dent writers. Among many others, Varlam SHALA-

MOV, Andrei AMALRIK, and Aleksandr SOLZHENITSYN

were imprisoned; Osip MANDELSTAM died during

imprisonment; and Isaak BABEL was summarily

executed. Similarly in China, during the Cultural

Revolution, such writers as DING LING and Hu Feng

(1903–85), who resisted the restrictions of social-

ist realism, were imprisoned.

Throughout these periods of repression,

writers have been remarkably resilient. Some, like

the exiled novelist Vladimir NABOKOV,reinvented

themselves in exile. Surviving imprisonment,

illness, and forced exile, Solzhenitsyn returned to

acclaim in Russia after the fall of the Soviet

Union. Paris, after the war, became a particular

magnet for exiled writers from Russia, Central

Europe, Latin America, and Greece. At the same

time, writers who remained in the Soviet Union

used their creative resources to develop a genre

of dissident literature, samizdat, which was

often distributed underground at great risk and

depended on humor, irony, obliqueness, and

allegory. Literary movements affirming freedom

and national identity emerged—as in Poland,

Hungary, and Czechoslovakia—surreptitiously

to challenge both socialist realism and Soviet

domination.

THE AFTERMATH OF COLONIALISM

One of the more inspiring effects of the postwar

years was the end of colonialism and the emer-

gence of cultures, albeit changed, that colonialism

had tried to destroy or assimilate. The

NÉGRITUDE

movement, for example, united French-speaking

African and Caribbean writers in an effort to

forge a new self-expression from the colonial lan-

guage they had learned in French schools and

universities and the language they spoke at

home. This produced the extraordinary writings

of Léopold SENGHOR, Birago DIOP, and Aimé

CÉSAIRE, among others, and revitalized a sense of

African identity. Similarly, the independence of

India in 1947 had a profound effect on definitions

of Indian identity and catalyzed a resurgence of

regional writers.

Even within Europe, up until World War II,

marginalized cultures such as Breton, Provençal,

Welsh, Irish, and Scottish Gaelic were disappear-

ing because, within a centralized educational sys-

tem, only the dominant, official language was

encouraged. Increasingly, these cultures have

resisted such internal colonization, and their lan-

guages are now included in the curriculum of

some schools. This trend has continued under the

aegis of the institution of the European Common

Market. In Canada, the revival of the Québecois

identity and the emergence of major authors writ-

ing in French, as a response to the dominant

Anglophone culture, have been other remarkable

examples, in a different context, of renewed cul-

tural self-determination.

Postcolonialism has produced a strong immi-

grant and diasporic literature. For economic and

political reasons, South Asians, Indonesians,

Africans, Turks, and Caribbeans have established

themselves in the West and have produced a new

definition of what constitutes, for example, English,

French, German, or Dutch literature.

WOMEN WRITERS

Feminist movements in America and Europe since

the 1970s have had an equally transformative

effect on world literature. They have revealed the

difficulties of women writers in the past who, for

the most part, had no legal or civil rights and were

not supposed to participate in public life or have

their work published. They have also brought to

light works that had once been influential (when

Introduction xv

published anonymously or with male pseudo-

nyms) but were later excluded from the literary

canon. They have questioned the conventional

notions of what is considered literary—the prior-

ity given to poetry, drama, and the realistic

novel—and have given value to “inferior” forms of

expression, such as letters, memoirs, and diaries,

often pejoratively described as “women’s litera-

ture.” Above all, the women’s movement has

inspired women writers throughout the world.

Even in cultures that have hardened against the

engagement of women in public life, as in some

nations of North Africa and the Middle East,

women writers such as Assia

DJEBAR from Algeria

and Nawal

SADAWI

from Egypt have changed the

political and literary map. Confronting very dif-

ferent social and economic conditions, women in

Latin America, Africa, and South Asia are engag-

ing in the complex issues of liberation, modern-

ization, and their roles in traditional patriarchal,

religious communities.

Many women writers have been recipients of

the Nobel Prize. Swedish novelist Selma LAGERLÖF,

became the first woman to receive the Nobel Prize

in 1909. Chilean poet Gabriela MISTRAL became

the first Latin American woman to receive the

prize in 1945.

LITERATURE AFTER THE COLLAPSE OF

THE SOVIET UNION

In the last 15 years, the borders of the map of lit-

erature have become almost unrecognizable. The

fall of the Soviet Union has meant the reconfigu-

ration of social and national identities in Eastern

and Central Europe. This has brought about the

revival of national traditions and the creation of

new ones. Economic disorder and political unrest,

especially due to the war in the former Yugoslavia

and neighboring states, have also created a new

wave of national consciousness as well as

increased immigration of writers to Western

Europe and the United States.

EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION

Despite revivals of national identities, the techno-

logical revolution of the Internet and the global-

ization of markets pose the threat of cultural

homogenization. Although it is now possible for

diverse cultures to interact on an unprecedented

scale, during the last two centuries, languages of

aboriginal peoples have been disappearing at an

alarming rate, and new forms of globalization

have brought fear of domination by a Western cul-

ture identified as secular and materialistic. Funda-

mentalist religious authorities, in particular, have

instituted the persecution of writers whom they

consider to be disrespectful of religious beliefs and

customs.

The persecution of writers and artists by polit-

ical or religious groups for blasphemy or obsceni-

ty is nothing new in the history of world literature.

During the last 200 years, some of the iconic texts

of Western culture, such as Flaubert’s Madame

Bovary, Baudelaire’s Les Fleurs du mal, and Joyce’s

Ulysses, were put on trial. The Catholic Church

has long placed many writers, admired by readers

and literary critics alike, on its “Index” of what

should not be read. In the face of fundamentalist

Islamic interdictions, the very lives of writers con-

sidered to be blasphemous are at risk. A death

threat by religious decree was imposed on Salman

Rushdie for his Satanic Verses.

Nevertheless, under the most difficult circum-

stances, writers have shown extraordinary capaci-

ty for transformation. The 21st century promises

to be just as challenging. At a recent discussion

among world writers in the small Welsh village of

Hay-on-Wye, the Irish writer and playwright

Sebastian Barry suggested that writers write to

create equilibrium. It remains to be seen, given the

intensification of political and economical insta-

bility, what new balancing acts will be performed

on the high wire of world literature.

—M. Josephine Diamond

New York City, August 2002

xvi Encyclopedia of World Writers, 19th and 20th Centuries

xvii

Dates Author

1749–1842 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von

1756–1819 Naubert, Benedikte

1759–1805 Schiller, Friedrich

1764–1842 Fischer, Caroline Auguste

1765–1820 Nguyen Du

1766–1826 Karamzin, Nikolai

1766–1877 Staël, Germaine de

1767–1830 Constant de Rebecque,

Benjamin

1768–1848 Chateaubriand, François-

René de

1770–1843 Hölderlin, Friedrich

1776–1820 Ho Xuan Huong

1776–1822 Hoffmann, E. T. A.

1777–1828 Duras, Claire de

1778–1827 Foscolo, Ugo

1783–1842 Stendhal

1785–1859 Arnim, Bettina von

1785–1863 Grimm, Jacob and Wilhelm

1785–1873 Manzoni, Alessandro

1786–1859 Desbordes-Valmore, Marceline

1790–1869 Lamartine, Alphonse de

1797–1856 Heine, Heinrich

1797–1863 Vigny, Alfred-Victor de

1797–1869 Gh¯alib, Mirz¯a Asadull¯ah

Kh¯an

Dates Author

1798–1837 Leopardi, Giacomo

1798–1855 Mickiewicz, Adam Bernard

1799–1837 Pushkin, Aleksandr

1799–1850 Balzac, Honoré de

1802–1885 Hugo, Victor

1804–1876 Sand, George

1805–1875 Andersen, Hans Christian

1807–1893 Pavlova, Karolina

1808–1842 Espronceda y Delgado, José de

1808–1852 Gogol, Nikolay

1808–1855 Nerval, Gérard de

1808–1889 Barbey d’Aurevilly, Jules-

Amédée

1810–1857 Musset, Alfred de

1811–1872 Gautier, Théophile

1812–1870 Herzen, Aleksandr

1812–1891 Goncharov, Ivan

1813–1837 Büchner, Georg

1814–1841 Lermontov, Mikhail

1818–1883 Turgenev, Ivan

1819–1898 Fontane, Theodor

1821–1867 Baudelaire, Charles

1821–1880 Flaubert, Gustave

1821–1881 Fyodor Dostoyevsky

1822–1896 Goncourt, Edmond

1823–1864 Gonçalves Dias, Antônio



AUTHORS

’

IMELINE

Dates Author

1828–1889 Chernyshevsky, Nikolai

1828–1906 Ibsen, Henrik

1828–1910 Tolstoy, Leo

1829–1877 Alencar, José Martiniano de

1830–1870 Goncourt, Jules

1832–1910 Bjørnson, Bjørnstjerne

1836–1870 Bécquer, Gustavo Alfonso

1837–1885 Castro, Rosalía

1838–1889 Villiers de L’Isle-Adam,

Auguste de

1838–1894 Cattopadhyay, Bankim-

Chandra

1839–1908 Machado de Assis, Joachim

Maria

1840–1902 Zola, Émile

1840–1922 Verga, Giovanni

1842–1891 Quental, Antero Tarquínio de

1842–1898 Mallarmé, Stéphane

1843–1920 Pérez Galdós, Benito

1844–1900 Nietzsche, Friedrich

1845–1900 Queiroz, José Maria Eça de

1846–1870 Lautreamont, Comte de

(Isidore-Lucien Ducasse)

1846–1916 Sienkiewicz, Henryk

1848–1907 Huysmans, Joris-Karl

1849–1912 Strindberg, August

1850–1893 Maupassant, Guy de

1851–1896 Verlaine, Paul

1851–1921 Pardo Bazán, Emilia

1852–1915 Peretz, Isaac Leib

1853–1900 Solovyov, Vladimir Sergeyevich

1854–1891 Rimbaud, Arthur

1856–1939 Freud, Sigmund

1857–1909 Liu E

1858–1940 Lagerlöf, Selma

1859–1916 Akhmatova, Anna

1859–1916 Aleichem, Shalom

1860–1900 naturalism

1860–1904 Chekhov, Anton

1860–1943 Roberts, Charles

1861–1913 Johnson, Pauline

1861–1928 Svevo, Italo

1861–1941 Tagore, Rabindranath

Dates Author

1862–1922 Mori

Ogai

1862–1946 Hauptmann, Gerhardt

1862–1949 Maeterlinck, Maurice

1863–1933 Cavafy, Constantine P.

1863–1938 D’Annunzio, Gabriele

1864–1925 Rosas, Oscar

1864–1936 Unamuno y Jugo, Miguel de

1867–1900 Nobre, António

1867–1902 Masaoka Shiki

1867–1916 Darío, Rubén

1867–1916 Natsume S¯oseki

1867–1922 Lawson, Henry

1867–1928 Blasco Ibáñez, Vicente

1867–1936 Pirandello, Luigi

1868–1933 George, Stefan

1868–1936 Gorky, Maxim

1868–1955 Claudel, Paul

1869–1945 Lasker-Schüler, Else

1869–1948 Gandhi, Mohandas K.

1869–1951 Gide, André

1869–1952 Hamsun, Knut

1870–1953 Bunin, Ivan

1871–1905 Fin de siècle

1871–1922 Proust, Marcel

1871–1945 Valéry, Paul

1871–1950 Mann, Heinrich

1872–1896 Higuchi Ichiy¯o

1872–1956 Baroja y Nessi, Pío

1873–1907 Jarry, Alfred

1873–1924 Bryusov, Valery Yakovlevich

1873–1954 Colette

1874–1929 Hofmannstahl, Hugo von

1874–1947 Machado y Ruiz, Manuel

1875–1926 Rilke, Rainer Maria

1875–1939 Machado, Antonio

1875–1955 Mann, Thomas

1876–1938 Chatterji, Sarat Chandra

1876–1944 Marinetti, Filippo

1877–1938 Iqb¯al, Muhammad

1877–1962 Hesse, Hermann

1878–1942 Yosano Akiko

1878–1957 Döblin, Alfred

1879–1944 Han Yongun

xviii Encyclopedia of World Writers, 19th and 20th Centuries

Dates Author

1879–1949 Naidu, Sarojini

1880–1918 Apollinaire, Guillaume

1880–1934 Bely, Andrei

1880–1936 Premchand, Munshi

1880–1942 Musil, Robert von

1880–1967 Arghezi, Tudor

1881–1936 Lu Xun (Lu Hsün)

1881–1958 Jiménez, Juan Ramón

1882–1944 Giraudoux, Jean

1882–1949 Undset, Sigrid

1883–1923 Ha˘sek, Jaroslav

1883–1924 Kafka, Franz

1883–1955 Ortega y Gasset, José

1883–1956 Takamura Kotaro

1883–1957 Kazantsakis, Nikos

1883–1971 Shiga Naoya

1884–1937 Zamyatin, Yevgeny

1885–1962 Dinesen, Isak

1886–1921 Gumilev, Nikolai

1886–1942 Hagiwara Sakutar¯o

1886–1951 Broch, Hermann

1886–1956 Benn, Gottfried

1886–1965 Tanizaki Jun’ichir ¯o

1886–1978 Madariaga, Salvador de

1886–1980 Kokoschka, Oskar

1887–1914 Trakl, Georg

1887–1966 Arp, Hans

1887–1975 Perse, Saint-Jean

1888–1923 Mansfield, Katherine

1888–1935 Pessoa, Fernando

1888–1970 Agnon, Shmuel Yosef

1888–1970 Ungaretti, Giuseppe

1889–1957 Mistral, Gabriela

1889–1963 Cocteau, Jean

1889–1965 Alberti, Rafael

1889–1975 Gunnarsson, Gunnar

1890–1960 Pasternak, Boris

1890–1979 Rhys, Jean

1891–1938 Mandelstam, Osip

1891–1940 Bulgakov, Mikhail

1891–1958 Becher, Johannes Robert

1891–1962 Hu Shih

1891–1967 Ehrenburg, Ilya

Dates Author

1891–1970 Sachs, Nellie

1891–1974 Lagerkvist, Pär

1892–1923 Södergran, Edith

1892–1927 Akutagawa Ry¯unosuke

1892–1938 Storni, Alfonsina

1892–1938 Vallejo, César

1892–1941 Tsvetaeva, Marina

1892–1975 Andri´c, Ivo

1893–1930 Mayakovsky, Vladimir

1893–1980 Collymore, Frank A.

1893–1984 Guillén, Jorge

1894–1941 Babel, Isaac

1894–1953 Tuwim, Julian

1894–1961 Céline, Louis-Ferdinand

1895–1925 Yesenin, Sergey Aleksandrovich

1895–1952 Éluard, Paul

1895–1976 Satyanarayana, Visvanatha

1895–1998 Jünger, Ernst

1896–1948 Artaud, Antonin

1896–1957 Lampedusa, Giuseppe di

1896–1963 Tzara, Tristan

1896–1966 Breton, André

1896–1981 Montale. Eugenio

1897–1962 Bataille, Georges

1897–1982 Aragon, Louis

1898–1936 García Lorca, Federico

1898–1956 Brecht, Bertolt

1898–1970 Remarque, Erich Maria

1899–1950 Langgässer, Elisabeth

1899–1966 Lao She

1899–1972 Kawabata Yasunari

1899–1977 Nabokov, Vladimir

1899–1984 Michaux, Henri

1899–1986 Borges, Jorge Luis

1899–1988 Ponge, Francis

1900–1944 Saint-Exupéry, Antoine de

1900–1971 Seferis, George

1900–1987 Freyre, Gilberto de Mello

1900–1999 Bing Xin (Ping Hsin)

1900–1999 Sarraute, Nathalie

1901–1956 Fadeyev, Aleksandr

Aleksandrovich

1901–1968 Quasimodo, Salvatore

Authors’ Timeline xix