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Wu Chengen 307

Like his fellow colonist Roger WILLIAMS,he

wrote about government and religion. Two of his

most important essays are “Arbitrary Government

Described” (1644), concerning the legislative and

judicial powers of the colonial government, and

“Model of Christian Charity” (1629–30), a descrip-

tion of the type of human decency and charity

Winthrop expected citizens of the Massachusetts

colony to exhibit.

Winthrop also diligently kept a journal, titled

The History of New England 1630–1649. It was not

published until 1825–26, almost two centuries

after his death, yet it stands as one of the most

complete firsthand accounts of the early years of

New England.

Works by John Winthrop

Journal of John Winthrop: 1630–1649. Edited by

Richard S. Dunn, et al. Cambridge, Mass.: Belk-

nap/Harvard University Press, 1996.

Short Story of the Rise, Reign and Ruin of the Antino-

mians, Familists and Libertines that Infected the

Churches of New England (1644). Whitefish,

Mont.: Kessinger, 2003.

Works about John Winthrop

Aronson, Marc. John Winthrop, Oliver Cromwell, and

the Land of Promise. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin,

2004.

Bremer, Francis J. John Winthrop: America’s Forgotten

Founding Father. New York: University Press, 2003.

Connelly, Elizabeth R. John Winthrop: Politician and

Statesman. Langhorne, Pa.: Chelsea House, 2000.

Morgan, Edmund S. The Puritan Dilemma: The Story

of John Winthrop. Lebanon, Ind.: Pearson, 1998.

Woolman, John (1720–1772)

humanitarian, journal writer

John Woolman is best known for writing a journal

that is considered to be one of the finest statements

of Quaker life. Journal and Major Essays, published

in 1774, is a classic of American spiritual experi-

ence. Woolman was also a powerful early voice in

opposition to slavery, poverty, and war.

A New Jersey Quaker, Woolman was raised in

Quaker schools and meetings and began his public

ministry at age 22. He carried Quaker ideals

of peace and Christian brotherhood across the

Atlantic, ranging from the south to Pennsylvania.

He worked as a storekeeper, tailor, orchard keeper,

teacher, surveyor, and conveyer of deeds, leases,

and bills of sale, including bills of sale for human

property. Woolman died of smallpox in England

while traveling for an antislavery cause.

In his Journal and Major Essays, Woolman re-

lates how these transactions troubled him so much

that he gave up his job rather than prepare another

indenture for servitude or slave transaction. He fo-

cuses on his internal process of reasoning leading

to his change of vocation. He also gives the reader

a view of his private, intimate moment of conver-

sion in this record of personal spiritual experience.

The work is historically valuable in Woolman’s

treatment of the human drama and the injustice of

the slave trade in the early United States.

Works by John Woolman

Journal of John Woolman and Plea for the Poor. Eu-

gene, Ore.: Wipf and Stock, 1998.

Walking Humbly with God: Selected Writings of John

Woolman. Nashville, Tenn.: Upper Room Books,

2000.

Works about John Woolman

Birkel, Michael Lawrence. A Near Sympathy: The

Timeless Quaker Wisdom of John Woolman. Rich-

mond, Ind.: Friends United Press, 2003.

Sox, David. John Woolman: Quintessential Quaker,

1720–1772. Richmond, Ind.: Friends United Press,

1999.

Wu Chengen (Wu Ch’eng-en) (ca. 1500–

ca. 1582) novelist, poet

Wu Chengen was born in Kiangsu province in east-

ern China. His father was a merchant who loved lit-

erature, and Wu was noted for his own literary

accomplishments at a very young age. Nevertheless,

he repeatedly failed the arduous examinations for

the imperial civil service. Finally, at the advanced

age of 63, he became a provincial magistrate, only

to be imprisoned two years later on groundless

charges of corruption. After clearing Wu’s name,

the imperial court offered him another post, which

he refused, preferring to devote the remainder of

his life to writing.

Wu Chengen composed many works of verse

that convey strong emotions. Two volumes of his

poems survive, most of them discovered in im-

perial palaces in Kiangsu many years after his

death. He is best known as the presumed author

of The Journey to the West [Hsi Yu Chi], an EPIC

prose novel that appeared anonymously in 1592,

10 years after his death. Since then, The Journey

to the West has appeared in many different forms

and been the inspiration if not the source for

various works. A picture book of the story was

published in 1806. In 2000 the movie Lost Em-

pire, based upon Wu’s book, was released. It tells

the story of journalist Nick Orton’s search for the

lost manuscript of Hsi Yu Chi. The book also

served as the basis of the Japanese television se-

ries Saiyuki (Monkey, also known as Monkey

Magic), which ran from 1978 to 1990. Finally, the

computer-animated video Monkey (1996) by

Miles Inada and Evan Carroll is also based upon

The Journey to the West, as is the popular anime

Dragonball series.

Critical Analysis

Like all Chinese novels of the Ming dynasty period,

The Journey to the West was written in the vernacu-

lar rather than the formal, officially accepted classi-

cal style, and was probably published anonymously

to protect its author’s reputation. The theory that

Wu was the novel’s true author appears to have

originated in his home province during the 16th

century. Not all modern scholars are convinced of

Wu’s authorship, as there were similar published

tales that existed before Wu’s version. However,

most scholars believe the poet’s lifelong “love of

strange stories [and] popular novels” (as he wrote

in a preface to a collection of classical short stories)

is significant evidence in his favor.

Wu was inspired to write Journey to the West by

the epic pilgrimage of the 7th-century Buddhist

monk Hsuan-Tsang (596?–664), who traveled on

foot to India, today known as the birthplace of Bud-

dhism. Hsuan-Tsang walked for many years along

the fabled Silk Road in search of his faith’s sacred

texts, called the Sutra. After finding them, he re-

turned to China and began translating the scrip-

tures into Chinese. By Wu’s time, Hsuan-Tsang’s

pilgrimage had become the subject of many fantas-

tic legends, which had already inspired a short verse

novel and a six-part drama titled Monkey. Wu thus

had much source material for his 100-chapter novel.

In “The Story of the Monkey,” comprising the

first seven chapters of Journey to the West, the

novel’s protagonist Monkey is born from a magical

stone egg, learns the supernatural abilities of

shape-shifting and flight, and makes himself king

of all the monkeys on Earth. Throughout the tale,

we see Monkey transform himself into a bird, a

beast of prey, and a bug. We also see him dive into

the mouth of a dragon to retrieve a horse. Monkey

gets into trouble on a visit to heaven, however, as

his hunger for knowledge and his abuse of his

powers lead to chaos. The god Erhlang subdues

him, and Buddha sentences him to live under a

mountain for 500 years.

The next five chapters, “The Story of Hsuan-

Tsang and the Origin of the Mission to India,” re-

count the life of Hsuan-Tsang (here called

Tripitaka), whom the emperor dispatches on a

journey to the “Western Paradise,” where good

Buddhists go after they die. Monkey is given a

chance to prove himself by becoming Tripitaka’s

disciple and protector, and accompanying him on

his pilgrimage. Monkey proves his worth by killing

beasts, such as a tiger who tries to kill them, and

human ruffians who try to steal Tripitaka’s horse.

Such events continue in the remaining chapters,

called “The Pilgrimage to India,” in which Wu

Chengen recounts 81 separate, supernatural ad-

ventures of the monk, Monkey, and two other

magical animals. The slow-witted Pigsy and the

fish Sandy serve as additional protectors for Tripi-

taka as they journey to the Western Paradise.

308 Wu Chengen

While Monkey is an allegorical character with

many complexities and discrepancies, Pigsy is a

clear-cut representation of human desire and often

sloth. In the “Editor’s Notes” to the journal Figure

in the Carpet, Jian Leng summarizes the characters

and what they represent in this way:

Readers of Journey to the West soon realize that

the bizarre main characters are, in many ways,

archetypical figures representing universal

qualities of human nature. [Tripitaka], the

monk sent by the king to gather the scriptures,

represents “everyman” searching for meaning.

The disciple Piggy embodies sensuality and ap-

petite as well as the vitality and energy neces-

sary to undertake a demanding journey. The

disciple Sandy represents sincerity. And then,

there is Monkey, who symbolizes the undisci-

plined intellect that must be tamed before the

journey—the spiritual transformation—can

be undertaken and successfully completed.

During their journey, the four friends, led by

the trickster-warrior Monkey, encounter and

often do battle with demons, dragons, and gods

from Chinese mythology, all of which Wu Chen-

gen vividly describes. Monkey thwarts many of

these enemies with a cudgel he can reduce to the

size of a needle, which he carries behind his ear.

He also visits hell and reads the book of death,

in which he notices his own name. He erases it,

thus ensuring himself everlasting life. Perhaps

most famous, however, is the novel’s biting satire

of the hidebound, inefficient, and inescapable

Chinese bureaucracy. When Monkey visits

heaven early in the novel, he meets the Jade Em-

peror, who is less a mighty divinity than prosaic

administrator, presiding over a bloated civil serv-

ice composed of numerous useless officials with

pompous titles who attempt to control every as-

pect of life on Earth:

Heavenly carpenters were ordered to build the

office of the Great Sage to the right of the Peach

Garden. It had two departments, one called

Peace and Quiet and the other Calm Spirit. In

each were Immortal Officers who attended

Monkey wherever he went.A Star Spirit was de-

tailed to escort Monkey to his new quarters,

and he was allowed a ration of two jars of Im-

perial wine and ten sprays of gold-leaf flowers.

Wu’s readers immediately would have recognized

the analogy between the hierarchy of Wu’s heaven

and that of China. The scene also points out that

Monkey, rather than Tripitaka, is the protagonist in

the book. In her article “Getting a Jump on Dragon

Ball,” Alysson Wyatt states:

The reason for this, most critics agree, is that

Monkey embodies the theme that the original

author tried to convey to his readers: a rebel-

lious spirit can defy even the most untouchable

of feudal rulers. This idea of defying authority

was highly frowned upon in China, as the ideas

of Confucianism again took hold over the

newer religions in the region, Buddhism and

Taoism. Confucianism was returned to its orig-

inal place as the official orthodoxy of the state

of China during the Tang dynasty (c.e. 618) by

an iron-fisted ruling body of high-level bu-

reaucrats. Unlike Confucianism, which teaches

conformity and proper behavior within an

ideal social system, Taoism and Buddhism ad-

vocate an approach to life more receptive to

new ideas and change. The monk’s character

was necessary because it masked the impor-

tance of Monkey’s rebellious nature.

Despite Tripitaka’s despairing that he will ever

succeed, the novel ends with the band’s discovery

of the sacred scrolls. For his efforts in defense of his

friend the monk, the formerly disreputable Mon-

key is made a saint, with the new name Buddha

Victorious in Strife.

In the words of its translator Arthur Waley,

Journey to the West is “unique in its combination of

beauty with absurdity, of profundity with non-

sense. Folk-lore, allegory, religion, history, anti-bu-

reaucratic satire and pure poetry—such are the

Wu Chengen 309

310 Wu Jingzi

singularly diverse elements of which the book is

compounded.”

Journey to the West is widely read in many Asian

countries, Europe, and North America. In China, it

proved very influential during the Cultural Revo-

lution of the 1960s, when its satirical passages in-

spired the radical youth cadres who opposed

bureaucracy and tradition. Today, the story is seen

as both a rejoining of individual spirit and an

odyssey in which the characters travel toward Bud-

dhist enlightenment. Monkey’s playful humor and

Tripitaka’s Buddhist-like detachment continue to

enthrall readers of all ages and cultures.

Works by Wu Chengen

Monkey: Selections from Hsi Yu Chi. Translated by

Arthur Waley. New York: Grove, 1984.

The Journey to the West, 4 vols. Translated by Anthony

C. Yu. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977.

Works about Wu Chengen

Dudbridge, Glen. The Hsi-yu Chi: A Study of An-

tecedents to the Sixteenth-Century Chinese Novel.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970.

Liu Ts’un-jen. Wu Ch’eng-en, His Life and Career. Lei-

den: E.J. Brill, 1967.

Wu Jingzi (Wu Ching-tzu) (1701–1754)

novelist

Wu Jingzi came from a well-educated family in

southeastern China. Like others in his family, he

was a member of the civil service. His father died

when he was a young man, and Wu Jingzi wasted

the considerable inheritance he received. His fi-

nancial problems persisted throughout his life, and

he had difficulties at work. In his later life, he chose

to withdraw from society.

Wu Jingzi wrote in many genres, including po-

etry, but he is best known for his novel, The Schol-

ars (Bulin Waishi [Ju-lin wai-shih]), sometimes

called Unofficial History of the Literati. The book was

the first satirical novel written in Chinese, and many

scholars consider it to be the best of the genre.

The Scholars has an unusual structure; it is more

like a collection of short stories with common

links than a conventional linear novel. The number

of chapters is in dispute, but the earliest known

manuscript (1803) includes 55 chapters.

In The Scholars, Wu Jingzi attacks the corrup-

tion he sees in the government and society of his

time. Because of his subject, he purposely avoids

using elevated language. In his book Wu Ching-

Tzu, Timothy Wong points out that “Wu Ching-

tzu chose to render his novel in a nonliterary

language, and thus to place it also into the tradi-

tion of vernacular Chinese fiction,” thus making it

more accessible to the common people.

In contrast to earlier authors such as TANG Xi-

anzu, who drew upon earlier stories or legends, Wu

Jingzi took a more personal approach to his writ-

ing by basing his characters on people he knew,

including himself.

André Levy asserts that the “episodic structure”

of The Scholars had “a decisive influence on this

subgenre at the end of the nineteenth and the start

of the twentieth centuries”(Chinese Literature, An-

cient and Classical). With its modern structure and

universal themes, The Scholars continues to have

worldwide appeal and is considered a classic of

Chinese literature.

An English Version of a Work by Wu Jingzi

The Scholars. Translated by Gladys Yang and Yang

Hsien-Yi. La Vergne, Tenn.: University Press of the

Pacific, 2001.

A Work about Wu Jingzi

Wong, Timothy C. Wu Ching-Tzu. Boston: G.K. Hall,

1978.

Wycliffe, John (John Wyclif) (1324–1387)

essayist, translator

John Wycliffe was born in a small town in the

county of York, England. Little is known about his

childhood or family, but he received a traditional

education before studying at the University of Ox-

Wycliffe, John 311

ford. As a university student, he established a great

reputation for his talents and went on to receive a

doctorate in theology before being ordained and

assuming pastorates in Lutterworth and Lincoln.

Having become a well-known public figure

throughout England for his writings and outspo-

ken opinions, Wycliffe was entrusted by the royal

family with important diplomatic missions.

Though one of these missions was to resolve vari-

ous conflicts between the pope and the English

government, Wyclif was himself first censored and

then condemned by the Catholic Church for his

unorthodox beliefs and criticism of the clergy.

Wycliffe questioned fundamental teachings of

the church in his pamphlets and essays, for the

most part written in Latin and devoted to a single

theological or philosophical theme. In The Truth of

the Sacred Scriptures (1378), he argues that Christ-

ian faith should be derived directly from the Bible

without the mediation of a corrupt church or

clergy. Though excommunicated in 1380, he con-

tinued to receive support from the English royal

family and continued to produce theological

works until his death in Lutterworth.

Wycliffe’s writings were extremely influential

in Protestant theology, but his most important

work was his translation of the Bible into English.

Working from the Latin Vulgate, he sought to

make a text comprehensible for all readers. The re-

sult was a text that not only would have important

religious implications, but also would, at least in-

directly, have a decisive impact on English prose

and poetry for centuries to come. His work served

as part of the basis of the King James Bible (1611),

one of the most important texts in the history of

English-language literature.

A Work by John Wycliffe

Select English Writings. Edited by Herbert E. Winn.

New York: AMS Press, 1976.

A Work about John Wycliffe

Kenny, Anthony, ed. Wyclif in His Times. New York:

Clarendon Press, 1986.

312



Yuan Hungdao (Yüan Hung-tao)

(1568–1610) poet, nonfiction writer

Yuan Hungdao was a government official during

the last years of the Ming dynasty. He and his

brothers, Yuan Zongdao (Yüan Tsung-tao) and

Yuan Zhongdao (Yüan Chung-tao), were all writers

from a small town, and their group became known

by the town’s name, the Kung-an School. They

wrote at a time noted in Chinese history for its in-

creased intellectual activity. Like their contempo-

rary, dramatist TANG XIANZU, they were innovative

in their poetry, rejecting traditional, formal styles

for more individual and personal ones.

Yuan Hungdao’s poems often address simple

moments in life, with titles such as “Writing

Down What I See” or “Improvised on the Road.”

In this excerpt from “Things Experienced,” he

blends the ordinary elements of the day with the

daily news:

People gossip of invasions in the east;

rumors fly: “We’ve sent ships from the

north!”

I buy some Ch’ü-chou oranges, spotted with

frost:

listen all day to famous women singers.

(trans. by Jonathan Chaves,

Pilgrim of the Clouds)

In addition to writing poetry, Yuan Hungdao

wrote many prose pieces, all of which are noted for

their expressive language and detail. Yuan Hung-

dao’s poetry and his prose, as well as that of his

brothers, laid the early foundations for the modern

period of Chinese literature.

An English Version of Works by

Yuan Hungdao

Pilgrim of the Clouds: Poems and Essays from Ming

China. Translated by Jonathan Chaves. New York:

Weatherhill, 1992.

A Work about Yuan Hungdao

Chih-P’ing Chou. Yuan Hung-tao and the Kung-an

School. New York: Cambridge University Press,

1988.

313



Zeami (Zeami Motokiyo, Motokiyo

Kanze)

(1363–1443) actor, playwright, critic

Zeami was born in Nagaoka, Japan. His mother

was the daughter of a priest, and his father was the

great NOH actor and playwright Kannami, also

known by his stage name Kanze.

Zeami appeared in plays with his father’s acting

troupe, the Kanze-za, from a very early age. When

he was 12, he and his father performed in front of

the third shogun, Yoshimitsu. The young Zeami

quickly became a favorite of the 17-year-old

shogun and thus procured his first patron.

Yoshimitsu’s patronage gave Zeami, a com-

moner, access to people in the court. One of these

was Yoshimitsu’s cultural adviser and poet, Nij¯o

Yoshimoto. Whether to gain favor with the shogun

or because he was actually fond of the young man,

Yoshimoto took Zeami under his wing and taught

him appreciation for the finer, more refined pas-

times of the aristocrat, such as renga, or linked verse.

In 1384 Kannami died, passing on to Zeami,

then 22, the direction of his theater troupe, his

stage name, and the Noh knowledge and tradition.

This was an auspicious time for the young artist, as

he enjoyed the threefold advantage of having the

shogun for a patron, Nij¯o Yoshimoto for a friend,

and the reputation and theater troupe of his fa-

ther at his disposal.

This was not to last, however. In 1408 Yoshim-

itsu died and his son Yoshimochi became the

fourth shogun. Yoshimochi had little interest in the

Noh drama that Zeami was developing and refin-

ing, preferring the more boisterous Dengaku style.

Up to this time, Zeami had been revising his fa-

ther’s plays and writing new ones for the Kanze-za,

creating more than 90 plays that are still in the Noh

repertoire today. His masterpieces include such

works as Takasago and Matsukaze. Under Yoshi-

mochi’s rule, however, Zeami was unable to per-

form his plays and so turned to writing treatises on

Noh, critical and philosophical works on the aes-

thetics of the form. Along with his plays, these crit-

ical essays were crucial in refining Noh as a

dramatic form. As Hare states in Zeami’s Style: The

Noh Plays of Zeami Motokiyo, “His treatises on per-

formance represent the first pragmatically centered

work on aesthetics in Japanese intellectual history.”

Zeami’s first such treatise, and undoubtedly his

most famous, was completed when he was near 40.

Entitled F¯ushi Kaden, it was largely based on his fa-

ther’s experiences and achievements. He also pre-

sented several concepts on the aesthetics of Noh.

Three of these deserve special note: y¯ugen, a visual

sense of beauty that is both mysterious and ineffa-

ble; monomane, dramatic mimicry; and hana, or

flower, a metaphor for those qualities that make a

Noh performance successful. These concepts ap-

pear again and again in Zeami’s work and have de-

fined the art of Noh theater in literary form.

In 1424 Zeami’s life was interrupted again when

the sixth shogun, Yoshinori, came to power. Yoshi-

nori had no taste for Zeami’s Noh aesthetics and

revoked all the privileges that Zeami had enjoyed.

Still, Zeami continued to write treatises. One of his

major works of this time was Kakyo (The Mirror of

the Flower, 1424), a summary of his own experi-

ence in the theater, meant to be passed on in con-

fidence to his son Motomasa.

In 1432 Motomasa died. When told to accept

his nephew Onnami as his successor, Zeami re-

fused. As a result, he was exiled to Sado Island in

1434. He was 74 years old.When Zeami died, it was

unclear whether he was still in exile or had been al-

lowed to return home.

In the F¯ushi Kade, Zeami said of Noh, “Every-

thing in Noh has its own style, based upon the

meaning of the words, for it is language by which

the profound meaning is conveyed.” Zeami’s works

of instruction for actors and his thoughtful, de-

tailed theories about the writing and production of

Noh plays elevated Noh theater to an art form ri-

valing the dignity of court poetry. His works, with

their dense imagery and textured allusions to myths,

legend, and literature, still captivate audiences to

this day, earning Zeami his reputation as the great-

est playwright in the history of Noh theater.

An English Version of Works by Zeami

On the Art of the No Drama: Major Treatises by Zeami.

Translated by J. Thomas Rimer, Yamazaki

Masakazu, and Wallace Chappell. Princeton, N.J.:

Princeton University Press, 1984.

Works about Zeami

Nogami, Toyochiro. Zeami and His Theories on Noh.

Tokyo: Hinoki, 1973

Zeami and the No Theatre in the World. Edited by

Samuel L. Leiter, et al. New York: Martin E. Segal

Theatre Center, 1998.

314 Zeami

315



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