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Yosano Akiko (Sh¯o H¯o) (1878–1942)
poet, essayist, critic, children’s story writer
Yosano Akiko was born in the city of Sakai near
Osaka, Japan, to a merchant family. When she was
young, she helped out with the family business,
reading Japanese classical literature from her fa-
ther’s library in her spare time. After she com-
pleted a junior-high-school education, she began
to write poetry. During this time, she wrote a let-
ter to Tokyo poet Tekkan Yosano (1873–1935), to
establish a professional relationship. She later mar-
ried him. In an effort to further education for
women, Yosano helped establish a high school for
women in 1921. Seven years later, she started a po-
etry magazine called T¯ohaku (Cameria-Camelia).
She died of a cerebral hemorrhage.
Yosano’s first poem was published in an anthol-
ogy of Osaka-area poets in 1896. She continued to
work with these local poets until she met Tekkan,
who published a literary magazine My¯oj¯o (Morn-
ing Star). In 1901, she left Osaka for Tokyo and
began to publish poems, novels, and essays at a
rapid rate. During this period, she published her
most famous collection of poetry, Midaregami
(Tangled Hair, translated 1987). She also wrote es-
says on social and political issues, translated The
Tale of Genji into modern Japanese, and created a
collection of children’s stories.
Yosano primarily wrote tanka and free verse
that expressed honest emotions. To develop hon-
esty in her writing, she based her poems on her
personal experiences and feelings, notably her love
for Tekkan. Her style challenged traditional po-
etry themes and methods of expression, thereby
establishing her own modern poetic style. By the
time of her death, Yosano had written approxi-
mately 50,000 tanka.
Other Works by Yosano Akiko
River of Stars: Selected Poems of Yosano Akiko. Trans-
lated by Keiko Matsui Gibson. Boston: Shambhala
Publications, 1997.
Tangled Hair: Love Poems of Yosano Akiko. Translated
by Dennis Maloney. Fredonia, N.Y.: White Pine
Press, 1991.
Travels in Mongolia and Manchuria. Translated by
Joshua A. Fogel. New York: Columbia University
Press, 2001.
Works about Yosano Akiko
Rodd, Lauren Rasplica. “Yosano Akiko and the Taisho
Debate over the ‘New Woman.’” In Gail Lee Bern-
stein, ed., Recreating Japanese Women, 1600–1945.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
Ueda, Makoto. Modern Japanese Poets and the Nature
of Literature. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University
Press, 1983.
Yourcenar, Marguerite (Marguerite de
Crayencour)
(1903–1987) novelist, poet,
essayist
Born to an aristocratic family in Brussels, Belgium,
Yourcenar spent much of her childhood traveling
with her father. After his death, she became inde-
pendently wealthy and was able to pursue writing,
a passion that had begun to manifest itself when
she was a teenager. Her historical novels, which
deal with modern themes such as the psychologi-
cal manifestations of homosexuality and deviant
behavior, gained her international fame and recog-
nition.
Chinese legend fascinated Yourcenar in her early
works, as did the role and life of the artist. In her
early short story collection, Oriental Tales (1938),
she draws from Chinese and Sanskrit legend to
write about art and the artist’s frustration. In one
particular piece,“How Wang-Fo Was Saved,”she re-
counts the tale of an aging painter who is impris-
oned by a ruler who fears the power of art.
Memoirs of Hadrian (1951) is among the best
known of Yourcenar’s works. Detailing the reflec-
tions of a dying man and set on the eve of
Hadrian’s death, the emperor recounts his memo-
ries in a letter addressed to the person who will
take his place. The novel took 15 years to complete
and was published shortly after Yourcenar moved
to the United States at the start of World War II.
Yourcenar took a position in New York at
Sarah Lawrence College as professor of French lit-
458 Yosano Akiko
erature and began to live with her translator
Grace Frick. The two remained partners for the
duration of Yourcenar’s life. She continued to
write, publishing Le Coup de grâce (1939), the
story of a Prussian officer who, because he se-
cretly loves her brother, decides to kill the woman
who has fallen in love with him. She also pub-
lished The Abyss (1976), in which she creates a fic-
tional Renaissance man who is essentially a
combination of the historical figures Da Vinci,
Paracelsus, Copernicus, and Giordano Bruno.
Like many of the male characters she presents, he
is depicted as a homosexual.
Yourcenar wrote only one work with a contem-
porary setting. The novel, Denier du rêve (A Coin
in Nine Hands, 1934), revolves around the at-
tempted assassination of Mussolini. The novel is
also unique in that it revolves around several fe-
male characters and examines the female psyche.
The majority of Yourcenar’s characters in her
works are men who are trapped between the de-
mands of society and the desire for passion.
Yourcenar also wrote two volumes of family
memoirs, Souvenirs Pieux (Dear Departed, 1974)
and Archives du Nord (Northern Archives, 1977), as
well as a number of essays, poems, and plays. As a
translator, she worked to translate English and
American novels as well as Negro spirituals into
her native French. In 1980, Yourcenar became the
first woman ever to be elected to the Académie
Française. She died seven years later on December
17 in Maine.
Other Works by Marguerite Yourcenar
Dreams and Destinies. Translated by Donald Flanell
Friedman. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999.
How Many Years. Translated by Maria Louise Ascher.
New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1995.
Mishima: A Vision of the Void. Translated by Alberto
Manguel. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
2001.
Works about Marguerite Yourcenar
Horn, Pierre L. Marguerite Yourcenar. Boston:
Twayne, 1985.
Saint, Nigel. Marguerite Yourcenar: Reading the Visual.
Oxford: Legenda, 2000.
Yu Guangzhong (Yü Kwang-chung)
(1928– ) poet, essayist
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing, China, the
capital of Fukien Province. He studied foreign lan-
guages at Ginling and Xiamen Universities in
China before moving to Hong Kong with his fam-
ily in 1948.
In 1950,Yu Guangzhong fled to Taiwan as a stu-
dent refugee. He attended Taiwan’s most presti-
gious institution, the National Taiwan University,
where he began to write poetry. He graduated in
1952 and that same year published his first collec-
tion of poems, Blues of a Sailor. Highly sentimental
and nostalgic, it was very popular.
Yu Guangzhong worked as an army interpreter
until 1956 when he turned to teaching. Eventually,
he decided to pursue a graduate degree in the
United States. He earned a Masters of Fine Arts
from the University of Iowa in 1959. He returned
to Taiwan in 1959 and taught at Taiwan Teachers
University and the Political University of Taiwan.
Later, he taught at the Chinese University in Hong
Kong.
Yu Guangzhong remained committed to
literature, however, and formed the Blue Star Po-
etry Society with a friend, Qin Zihao. In the
1960s, he moved away from the sentimental style
of his past writing and studied both traditional
Chinese and modern forms of poetry. He pub-
lished an article, “Good-bye, Mr. Nothingness!”
on this subject, advocating change but discourag-
ing the complete Westernization of Chinese lit-
erature.
Yu Guangzhong continued to teach English lit-
erature at National Taiwan Normal University
until 1972 when he became the chair of the De-
partment of Western Languages and Literature at
National Chengchi University. Since then, he has
lived in the United States twice as a Fulbright
scholar and is the author of many volumes of po-
etry, including Stalactite (1960), Associations of the
Yu Guangzhong 459
Lotus (1964), and A Bitter Gourd Carved in White
Jade (1974). He is also a prolific translator of po-
etry and a prominent literary critic and essayist.
Today, he is considered one of Taiwan’s premier
men of letters.
Yun Tongju (Yun Hae-hwan) (1917–1945)
poet
Yun Hae-hwan was born on December 30 in My-
ongdong, North Kando province of Korea. He reg-
ularly published children’s poems while studying
literature at Yonhui College and wrote poems for a
volume he hoped to publish later. After graduat-
ing in 1941, he chose to continue his studies in
English literature.
Like many students in Japanese-occupied
Korea, Yun Tongju traveled to Japan, first enrolling
at Rikkyo University in 1942 and then transferring
to Doshisha University in Kyoto. At the time, re-
sistance to Japanese colonial rule was high, and re-
strictions on Koreans in Korea and Japan were
increasingly stringent. Yun Tongju was forced to
take a Japanese name and read, write, and speak in
Japanese. He wrote secretly in his native language.
Yun Tongju actively participated in the Korean
independence movement. As a result, in July 1943,
he was arrested for subversive activity by the
Japanese government. It is thought he was mis-
treated and abused in Japan’s Fukuoka prison,
where he died under unknown circumstances at
the age of 28.
His one volume of poetry, Sky, Wind, Stars and
Poetry, was published posthumously in 1948. The
poems closely reflected Yun Tongju’s feelings as a
subject of Japanese colonialism. Particularly be-
cause he studied in Japan, he had to deal with a
marked isolation from his native country and cul-
ture. His poems capture his displacement and re-
sentment. “Counting the Stars” is replete with
melancholic remembrances of the past, while
“Awful Hour” examines the depths of the narra-
tor’s sense of alienation, perhaps in a period of in-
tense solitude.
Yun Tongju’s writing is the poetry of an exile.
He searched for spiritual integrity and a Korean
identity under an oppressive foreign regime. As he
was battling outward influences of oppression, his
inner struggle manifested itself in tortured, an-
guished, highly personal poems that seem to doc-
ument both his individual struggle between
self-love and self-hate and Korea’s national crisis to
articulate its independence. Because his writing is
a testament to Korea’s struggle against colonialism
and provides a moving portrait of a young person’s
inner struggles, they were extremely popular, espe-
cially among younger readers.
Yun Tongju did not live to see Korea’s liberation
in 1945. In 1968, his alma mater, Yonhui College,
erected a monument in his honor.
460 Yun Tongju
461
Z
Zamyatin, Yevgeny (1884–1937) novelist
Yevgeny Ivanovich Zamyatin was born in the
small provincial town of Lebedyan, Russia. His fa-
ther was a priest, and his mother an extremely
well-educated woman who loved music. As a
young child, Zamyatin read Dostoevsky and Tur-
genev. Zamyatin graduated Voronezh Gymna-
sium in 1902 with the Gold Medal (the highest
academic honor in Russia, equivalent to a vale-
dictorian), which he pawned for 25 rubles some
months later. He moved to St. Petersburg and
worked in the shipyards. Zamyatin joined the
Bolsheviks, and his political beliefs got him into
trouble. He was beaten by the police, placed in
solitary confinement for several months, and was
finally banished from St. Petersburg by the czar’s
police force.
Zamyatin’s literary debut in 1908 was a subversive
short story “Alone,” for which he was briefly exiled to
Lakhta. In 1914, he was tried for political subversion
and expression of antimilitarist sentiments on the
basis of his short story “At the End of the World.” He
was eventually acquitted. In 1917, Maxim
GORKY of-
fered Zamyatin a position with Vsemirnaya Liter-
atura, a journal specializing in world literature.
Zamyatin was in charge of the English and American
sections in the journal. Throughout this period, he
continued to publish short stories.
Zamyatin described his literary works as
neorealism, a style according to Zamyatin that
concentrates on the grotesque and brutal aspects
of life. Zamyatin’s most famous work, We (1924),
is one of the earliest dystopias of science fiction.
The setting of the novel is a future One State,
governed by perfect laws of mathematics. All cit-
izens have numbers instead of names, and their
consumption (including sex) is completely regu-
lated by the state. We comments on the structure
of Soviet society, as well as the role of an indi-
vidual within this social matrix. After the publi-
cation of We, Zamyatin could no longer publish
his work in the Soviet Union. He moved to Paris
in 1931. Zamyatin was readmitted to the Writ-
ers’ Union but died in 1937 before returning to
Russia.
Zamyatin never received proper recognition
for his work during his lifetime. His style was an
enormous influence on many writers, including
George Orwell and Ursula Le Guin. Zamyatin’s
work has been translated into more than a dozen
languages.
Another Work by Yevgeny Zamyatin
The Dragon: Fifteen Stories. Translated by Mirra Gins-
burg. New York: Random House, 1967.
Zhao Zhenkai
See BEI DAO.
Zhou Shuren
See LU XUN
.
Zola, Émile (1840–1902) novelist, essayist
Noted both as the founder of the naturalist
movement (see NATURALISM
) and for his active
participation in the Dreyfus affair, Émile Zola
was born in Paris, France. His father died when
he was seven years old, leaving the family with se-
vere financial problems. He spent his childhood in
the south of France, in Aix-en-Provence, return-
ing with his mother to Paris at age 18. He be-
friended French painter Paul Cézanne and,
influenced by
ROMANTICISM, began to write. His
mother had great hopes that he would pursue a ca-
reer in law and ease the family’s financial burdens,
but he failed his exams. Popular legend holds that
there were times in which Zola’s family was so
poor that he would capture birds on his windowsill
to provide meat for the supper table.
Unable to pursue law, Zola secured employ-
ment first as a clerk for a shipping firm, then at
the Louis-Christophe-François-Hachette publish-
ing house, all the while working toward his goal of
becoming a published author. His journalistic
writings included art criticism and literary reviews
as well as political articles in which he openly ex-
pressed his animosity toward Napoleon III.
Zola’s earliest published works of fiction in-
clude Contes à Ninon (Stories for Ninon, 1864) as
well as several essays, plays and short stories. He
attracted little attention for his work until the pub-
lication of his scandalous and sordid autobio-
graphical work La Confession de Claude (Claude’s
Confession, 1865). This attention, however, came
not so much from the public as it did from the au-
thorities. As a result, Zola was fired from his job at
the publishing firm, but he gained recognition as
an emerging author.
Thérèse Raquin (1867), Zola’s first novel to be
considered a major work, was published two years
later and was a moderate success. He followed it
immediately with the first of a series of works col-
lectively referred to as the Rougon-Macquart cycle
(1871–93), which revolves around the life of a
family living under Napoleon III and the Second
Empire. Zola initially presented this idea to his
publisher in 1868. The family is split into two
branches: the working-class Rougons, and the
Macquarts, who are alcoholics and smugglers. In
the course of time, some would rise to the highest
levels of society, and others would fall victim to the
evils of society and the malformations of their own
character. The series reached 20 volumes, each one
slightly different in theme but all of them sharing a
common element of detailed research. Zola con-
ducted interviews and attempted to experience as
much as he could firsthand to understand and
present his characters fully. He was particularly in-
terested in the effects of heredity and social deter-
minism. This marked the beginning of the new
naturalist period of French literature.
The novel that brought him fame was L’Ass om -
moir (The Drunkard, 1877). After its publication,
he bought property and continued to compile de-
tailed notes about all aspects of life. Germinal
(1885) was written based on notes compiled on
labor conditions for coal miners. Having centered
his novel on a worker’s strike, Zola again attracted
the attention of the authorities, who viewed his
work as advocating and encouraging revolution.
On January 13, 1898, Zola became even more
openly involved in controversy. He published an
open letter entitled J’accuse in which he defended
Albert Dreyfus, a Jewish officer who had been sent
to prison for allegedly giving military secrets to
Germany. This letter was ultimately instrumental
in gaining Dreyfus a new trial and his eventual re-
lease, but not until Zola was forced to flee to Eng-
land to escape imprisonment for writing it. He
returned in 1899, after Dreyfus was released.
On September 28, 1902, Zola was found dead in
his home of carbon monoxide poisoning. Strong
462 Zhao Zhenkai
evidence points to the possibility that this was not
an accident but a murder, carried out by those who
disagreed with his views.
Other Works by Émile Zola
The Masterpiece. Translated by Thomas Walron. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Pot Luck. Translated by Brian Nelson. New York: Ox-
ford University Press, 1999.
A Work about Émile Zola
Brown, Frederick. Zola: A Life. New York: Farrar,
Straus & Giroux, 1995.
Zynger, Icek-Hersz
See SINGER
, ISAAC BASHEVIS
.
Zynger, Icek-Hersz 463
464
SELECTED
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Selected Bibliography 467