Ware C. Information Visualization: Perception for Design
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454 SUBJECT INDEX
speeded, glyphs for,
178–179
closure (Gestalt law)
figure and ground
perception and, 196,
198
overview, 194–196, 197
cluster analysis, 401
coding words and images
dual coding theory,
297–299, 306
imagens and logogens,
297–298
images vs. words, 303–306
links between images and
words, 306–311
nature of language,
299–301
text labels for images,
307–309
visual languages, 301–303
cognition. See also thinking
with visualizations
attention as motor for, 352
cognitive components of
visual thinking,
370–371
frames of reference,
333–337
memory as framework for,
352
as process in systems, 1–2
spatial map for
wayfinding, 330, 331,
332–333
visual thinking, 298–299
cognitive psychology, 397
cognitive science, 1
cognitive spatial map for
wayfinding, 330, 331,
332–333
color. See also CIE standards;
color blindness
appearance, 116–118
Application 1: color
specification interfaces
and color spaces,
119–123
Application 2: labeling,
123–127
Application 3: data maps,
127–138
Application 4: color
reproduction,
138–140
Application 5: exploratory
data analysis,
140–143
as attribute rather than
primary characteristic,
98, 116
categorical colors, 113
CIE standards, 103–110
color-matching setup,
100–101
conjunction of convexity
and, 155
connectedness grouping
principle vs., 191, 192
contrast, 117
correspondence problem
and, 219
critical function of color
vision, 97–98
cross-cultural consistency,
112
cultural meanings for, 16
equation describing, 100,
101
for Euler diagram
enhancement, 196
gamut, 101
glyph design and, 183
lessons for visualization,
143–144
measurement, 100–103
multivariate surface display
and, 254
negative light and,
101–102
opponent process theory,
110–116
preattentive processing of,
152, 154, 155
proximity luminance
covariance, 279–280
relative unimportance of
color vision, 97
saturation, 117–118
surface colors vs. lights,
104
three-stage model of
perception and, 21,
187, 188
transparency perception
and, 205
trichromacy theory,
98–99
unique hues, 112
color blindness
author’s experience, 97
color labels and, 125
color sequences for,
134–135, 136
overview, 99–100
in peripheral vision, 361
color channels. See also specific
channels
described, 110
illustrated, 111
information display and,
116
properties, 113–116
saturation and, 118
color constancy, 80
color palettes, 123
color processing, 116
color reproduction
gamut and, 138
heuristic principles for, 138
relationships vs. absolute
values for, 138
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Subject Index 455
smooth color changes and,
140
three-dimensional
transformations for
gamut mapping,
138–140
color spaces. See also CIE
standards; specific
color spaces
changing primaries,
387–388
CIElab uniform color
space, 108, 132
CIEluv uniform color
space, 89–90,
108–110, 132
color differences and
uniform color spaces,
108–110
color sequences from, 132
color specification
interfaces and,
119–121
cone response space, 99,
100
defined, 98
HSV, 119
perceived color differences
and, 123
RGB, 101, 102, 119
trichromacy and, 98–99
color specification interfaces
color palettes for, 123
color planes for, 120–121
color spaces and, 119–121
names for colors and,
121–123
separating luminance from
chromatic dimensions,
119–120
colorimetry, trichromacy as
basis for, 100
column perception. See row and
column perception
combinatorial explosion in user
studies, 403–404
Commission Internationale de
l’Éclairage (CIE). See
CIE standards
complementary wavelength of a
color, 107
compound lens imaging
properties, 41
computer animation. See
animation
computer languages. See
programming
languages
computer monitors
acuity graph for, 54
brain pixels and the
optimal screen, 53–57
calibrating to CIE
coordinates, 104
chromatic aberration in,
45–46
chromaticity coordinates
for two sets of
phosphors, 107
contrast illusions on CRT
displays, 87
contrast variations in, 60
depth of focus and, 42
gamma function, 84, 92
gamut, 101, 103, 108
generating colors defined
by CIE tristimulus
values, 107–108
illumination and
surrounds, 90–93, 95
matching colors to room
colors, 92–93
nonlinearity in, 84
optimal display, 62–67
refresh rate, 66–67
screen size and visual
efficiency, 54–57
stereo displays, 272
strengths and deficiencies,
67–68
three-dimensional
transformations for
gamut mapping,
138–140
visual angle and, 40
visual efficiency (VE)
equation, 55
voltage transformation into
lightness in, 92
computers as cognitive tools, 2
concavity, 155
concept maps or mind maps,
379–380
cone cells
cone response space, 99,
100
foveal, 47
overview, 47
sensitivity functions, 99
trichromacy and, 98
conjunction search
defined, 154–155
pattern learning study, 206
preattentive processing
and, 154–156
with spatial dimensions,
155–156
connectedness (Gestalt law),
191, 192
Constellation system, 380, 381
continuity
Gestalt law, 191–192, 193
good continuation
experiments,
199–200, 201
transparency perception
and, 205, 206
contour. See also continuity
closure (Gestalt law),
194–196, 197, 198
contour maps, 249,
251–252
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456 SUBJECT INDEX
Cornsweet effect, 77
defined, 198
direction perception and,
200–201, 202, 203
edge enhancement, 77–79
expressive power of lines,
212
flow visualization
techniques (2D), 201,
203–205
illusory, 198–199
motion and, 219–220
neurophysiological
mechanisms of
perception, 199
shading interaction,
248–252, 253
silhouettes, 233, 235–237
surface shape perception
and, 248–252
three-stage model of
perception and, 21,
187, 188
contour generator, 235
contour maps, 249, 251–252
contrast. See also simultaneous
brightness contrast
Chevreul illusion, 74, 77
chromatic, 117, 124–125
contrast threshold as
function of temporal
and spatial frequency,
61–62
Cornsweet effect, 77
crispening, 90
edge enhancement, 77–79
Hermann grid illusion, 72,
73
illusions on CRT displays,
87
luminance contrast effects,
94, 95
Mach band effect, 74, 77,
94
paper reproductions of
effects, 86–87
perceptually independent
textures and, 169
as primary perceptual
dimension of texture,
164
sharpening, 94
simultaneous brightness
contrast, 72–73,
75–79
spatial contrast sensitivity
function, 59–61
text contrast, 83
texture contrast effects,
170, 171
control compatibility in
interaction, 322–324
controls in user studies, 404
convergent eye movements, 363
convexity, 155
coordinate knowledge for
wayfinding, 331
Cornsweet effect, 77
correspondence problem, 218
cost of knowledge, 351
creative problem solving,
383–385
crispening, 90
cross-cultural studies, 401
cross-cultural validity of
sensory vs. arbitrary
representations, 14
CRT displays. See computer
monitors
cultural relativism, 6, 8
culture
arbitrary representations
and, 16
color code meanings and,
16, 125
cross-cultural consistency
for color, 112
cross-cultural studies, 401
embedded aspects of
visualization, 16
language structure as
cross-cultural, 299
order of color name
appearance in
languages, 112
sign language and, 299
cushion maps, 255, 256
cyclic visual attributes, 181–182
cyclopean scale for stereoscopic
displays, 276
data classification
attributes of entities or
relationships, 24–25
entities, 23
metadata, 26
operations as data,
25–26
overview, 23
relationships, 23–24
usefulness of, 23, 25
data glyphs. See glyphs
data maps. See also exploration
and navigation loop
for interaction
bivariate color sequences,
135–138
bivariate or multivariate
maps, 254–255
color sequences for,
127–138
contour maps, 249,
251–252
cushion maps, 255, 256
generation of distinct
textures using Gabor
function, 166–167
interval pseudocolor
sequences, 132–133
knowledge structure
interfaces, 379–383
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Subject Index 457
nominal pseudocolor
sequences (labeling
regions), 128–129
ordinal pseudocolor
sequences, 129–132
orientation of maps,
337–338
perceptual color sequences,
128
pseudocoloring in,
127–128
ratio pseudocolors,
133–134
sequences for the color
blind, 134–135
simultaneous brightness
contrast and reading
errors, 75
spectrum color sequences,
128, 136
supporting visualization
with, 338
tactical map displays, 145,
157–158
treemaps, 216–217
visual grammar of
elements, 215–217
data mining, 187
Data Mountain interface, 262,
263, 264, 369–
370
data selection and manipulation
loop for interaction
2D positioning and
selection, 319–320
choice reaction time,
318–319
control compatibility,
322–324
described, 317
Fitts’ law, 319–320, 321
Hick-Hyman law, 318
hover queries, 320–321,
376
kinematic chain theory,
321
lag between hand
movement and visual
feedback in VR,
319–320
learning, 322
path tracing, 321
selection time for graphical
interfaces, 319
speed-accuracy tradeoff,
318–319
two-handed interaction,
321–322
vigilance tasks, 324
declarative knowledge for
wayfinding, 330, 331
deixis, 309–310
dependency graph for depth
cues, 283
dependent variables, 403
depth cues. See also task-based
space perception;
specific cues
artificial spatial cues,
279–280
atmospheric depth, 280
binocular cues, 260
cast shadows, 266–268
combinations of cues,
280–283
defined, 259
dependency graph, 283
depth of focus, 266
eye accommodation, 269
eye convergence, 270
monocular dynamic cues,
260, 269–271
monocular static cues,
260
navigation and, 326
occlusion, 265–266
perspective cues, 260–
262
pictures seen from the
wrong viewpoint and,
263–265
shape-from-shading, 260,
268–269
size gradient, 260–262
stereoscopic depth,
271–279
structure-from-motion,
269–270
texture gradient, 260–262
weighted-average model,
281
depth of focus. See also
stereoscopic depth
augmented-reality systems
and, 43–44
computer monitor
deficiencies, 68
defined, 41
as depth cue, 266
of human eye, 41–42
range for various distances
(table), 42
simulating with flat-screen
displays, 35
vergence-focus problem,
273–274
virtual-reality displays and,
45, 46
derived data, 26
design. See also interface design
affordance theory and,
18–20
contour perception and,
199–200, 201
Gestalt laws as principles
for, 190, 191, 192,
194, 196, 197, 225
glyph, 176–177, 182–183,
355–356
implications from visual
problem solving
model, 374–379
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458 SUBJECT INDEX
multidimensional discrete
data and, 182–183
occlusion and, 266
pattern perception and,
188
preattentive processing
and, 152, 157–158
symbol, 152, 157–158
transparency applications,
205–206
visual working memory
capacity and,
355–356
detail
establishing shot and, 312
tradeoff with texture, 175
visual working memory
limitations and, 357
detection methods in
psychophysics,
395–396
deuteranopia (color blindness),
99–100
diagrams
animation for enriching,
224–225
chromaticity diagram
properties, 105–107
Euler, 195–196
flowcharts, 302
geon diagrams, 241–243,
244
map grammar, 215–217
node-link diagrams,
210–215, 284–287,
379–380
perceptual syntax of,
210–217
role of convention and,
10
sketchy, 384–385
structure diagrams,
302–303
text labels, 307–309
tracing data paths in 3D
graphs, 284–287
Difference of Gaussians (DOG)
model
Chevreul illusion and, 74,
77
equation for, 71
Hermann grid illusion and,
72, 73
Mach band effect and, 74,
77
pattern perception and,
71–72
simultaneous brightness
contrast and, 72–
73
surface-shading methods
and, 75–77
diplopia
cyclopean scale and, 276
defined, 271
as stereoscopic display
problem, 274–275
direct perception
defined, 18
problems for visualization
theory development,
19–20
visual mechanisms and, 19,
20
direction as monotonic visual
attribute, 181
display. See information display
distant objects, stereoscopic
depth cue and, 274
distortion techniques, 340–
342
DOG. See Difference of
Gaussians (DOG)
model
dots per inch, 63, 65
dual coding theory, 297–299,
306, 330
dynamic queries, 346, 348, 376
ecological optics
ambient optical array,
31–32
surfaces vs. classical
geometry,
30–31
edge enhancement. See also
contour
artists’ techniques, 78
Cornsweet effect, 77
for flow pattern
enhancement,
78–79
egocentric frames of reference,
333–335, 336
electromagnetic spectrum, 30,
31
elision techniques, 344
End of Science, The (Horgan),
1
entity-relationship model
attributes of entities or
relationships, 24–25,
212
entities defined, 23
modeling entities defined,
212
for node-link diagrams,
212–213
relationships defined,
23–24, 212
environment. See visual
environment
EPIC (executive process
interactive control),
353, 354
episodic memory, 367
equiluminous patterns, 114
error perception, 3
establishing shot
(cinematography),
312
Euler diagrams, 195–196
excitation purity, 106–107
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Subject Index 459
executive process interactive
control (EPIC), 353,
354
exocentric frames of reference,
335–336. See also
map view
experimenter bias, 402
exploration and navigation loop
for interaction
basic navigation control
loop, 325
costs of navigation,
376–379
described, 317
focus-context problem for
changing scales,
338–345
frames of reference,
333–337
locomotion and viewpoint
control, 325–333
map orientation, 337–338
overview, 325
perception for navigation,
325–327
rapid interaction with
data, 345–349
self-motion perception and
frame rate, 326–327
spatial navigation
metaphors, 327–330
wayfinding, 330–333
exploratory data analysis, color
for, 140–143
expressive gestures, 311
expressive motion, 221–222
Exvis data glyphs, 172, 184
eye accommodation, 269, 364
eye chart demonstrating visual
acuity, 51, 52
eye convergence depth cues,
270
eye movements
attention and, 359
eye accommodation, 269,
364
eye movement control
loop, 374
intrasaccadic scanning
loop, 374
saccadic, 363–364, 376
saccadic suppression, 361,
364
supervisory control systems
and, 364–365
types of, 363
visual monitoring
strategies, 365–366
eye, the. See also specific parts
accommodation, 269, 364
acuity distribution and the
visual field, 50–53
brain pixels and the
optimal screen, 53–57
camera analogy for, 38–40
chromatic aberration,
45–46
computational perspective
for, 39
diplopia, 271
illustrated, 39
lens, 41–42
neural processing in,
70–71
optics and augmented-
reality systems, 42–45
optics in virtual-reality
displays, 45, 46
Panum’s fusional area,
271–273
range of light levels and
lightness constancy,
85
receptors, 46–47
simple acuities, 47–49
spatial contrast sensitivity
function, 57–62
vergence angle, 270
visual angle, 40
visual stress, 62, 63
eyeball-in-hand navigation
metaphor, 328, 329
faces
Chernoff faces, 239–240
facial expressions, 238
recognition of, 237–238
facial action coding system
(FACS), 238
families of colors, 127
feedback loops in visualization,
4–5
figure and ground, 197–199
fish-eye technique, generalized,
344
Fitts’ law, 319–320, 321
flow patterns. See also vector
fields
advection trajectories, 204
background luminance
adjustment for, 78–79
overview, 32–33
sliver plots for, 175
tasks for flow
visualization, 204
visualization techniques,
78–79, 201, 203–205
flowcharts, 302
flying navigation metaphor,
328, 329–330, 377
focal distances, 43–44
focus. See also depth of focus
eye accommodation, 269,
364
focus-context problem for
changing scales,
338–345
heads-up display problems,
44
vergence-focus problem,
273–274
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460 SUBJECT INDEX
focus-context problem for
changing scales
distortion techniques for,
340–342
elision techniques for, 344
multiple windows for,
344–345
overview, 338–339
rapid zooming techniques
for, 342–344
spatial scale and, 339
structural scale and, 339
temporal scale and, 339
form perception
color channels and, 115
features preattentively
processed, 149–152
motion and, 219–220, 224
fovea
acuity and distance from,
51
cone cell packing in, 47
defined, 47
fovea-center attentional
field, 146
Panum’s fusional area,
271–273
parafovea, 56, 361
receptor mosaic in, 48
frame cancellation, 273
frame rate, self-motion
perception and,
326–327
frames
moving frames and
perception of motion,
220–221
vection and, 290–291
frames of reference
defined, 333
egocentric, 333–335, 336
exocentric, 335–336
multiple simultaneous
views and, 336–337
fundamental uncertainty
principle for
perception, 164
Gabor function
Barlow’s second dogma
and, 163
equation for, 163
fundamental uncertainty
principle and, 164,
165
Gabor receptive fields,
162, 164, 166
generation of distinct
textures using,
166–167
good continuation
experiments,
199–200
illustrated, 162
overview, 161–162
primary perceptual
dimensions of texture
and, 164
resolvable size for Gabor
pattern, 169–170
spatial tuning curve, 168
texture segmentation and,
162, 163
gamma
gamma function, 84
voltage steps and
perceptual steps, 92
gamut
color reproduction and,
138
defined, 101
discriminable colors for
color monitors, 108
monitor gamut (CIE),
103
primaries and, 101
saturation contours, 118
three-dimensional
transformations for
gamut mapping,
138–140
ganglion cells, retinal. See also
Difference of
Gaussians (DOG)
model
illustrated, 53
lateral geniculate nucleus
and, 70, 71
on-center receptive field,
70–71, 72
receptive field defined,
52–53, 70
generalized fish-eye technique,
344
geographic information systems
(GISs), 205
geons
defined, 233
geon diagrams, 241–243,
244
illustrated, 235
neural-network model and,
233
theory, 233
UML diagrams vs. geon
diagrams, 241, 242
Gestalt laws
closure, 194–196, 197
connectedness, 191, 192
continuity, 191–192, 193
design principles from,
190, 191, 192, 194,
196, 197, 225
development of, 189
figure and ground and,
197–199
linking text and graphics
and, 307
proximity, 189
relative size, 196, 197
similarity, 190–191
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Subject Index 461
spatial concentration
principle, 189–190
symmetry, 192–194
gestures
deixis, 309–310
expressive, 311
overview, 309
symbolic, 310–311
GISs (geographic information
systems), 205
gist
defined, 356
time for activation, 353
visual working memory
capacity and,
356–357
glyphs
camouflaged by texture,
176
defined, 145
design, 176–177, 182–183,
355–356
Exvis data glyphs, 172,
184
integral and separable
dimensions theory
and, 177–178
integral-separable
dimension pairs and,
180–181
integrated, 355–356
key lessons, 185–186
low-level graphical
attributes in design of,
182, 183
multidimensional discrete
data and, 182–183
multidimensional mapping,
184–185
multivariate discrete data
and, 176–182
for restricted classification
tasks, 177–178
in scatter plots, 145
for speeded classification
tasks, 178–179
star plots, 184
visual working memory
capacity and,
355–356
whisker plots, 184
God’s-eye view, 335–336
Go-Go Gadget technique, 323,
324
Gouraud shading, 75–77
graphemes, 160–161
graphical interface design. See
interface design
graphs. See node-link diagrams
grating acuity, 49
gray scales. See also luminance
Chevreul illusion, 74, 77
CIE standard, 89–90
deficiencies for encoding
data, 75, 93–94
dots per inch and, 65
fundamental questions for
applying, 69
Mach band effect, 74, 77,
94
optimal display and, 65
simultaneous brightness
contrast, 72–73
green, unique hues of, 112
group perception. See Gestalt
laws; pattern
perception
head-mounted displays (HMDs)
CAE fiber-optic display
(FOHMD), 57, 58
depth of focus and, 42
optical and perceptual
problems, 44–45
perspective coupled to
head movement for,
265
heads-up displays (HUDs), 44
Hermann grid illusion, 72, 73
Hick-Hyman law for choice
reaction time, 318
hierarchical clustering, 401
highlighting
adding vs. taking away,
153–154
semantic depth of field,
156–157
visually complex
environments and,
156
HMDs. See head-mounted
displays (HMDs)
hover queries, 320–321, 376
HSV color space, 119
HUDs (heads-up displays), 44
hue
families of colors, 127
in HSV color space, 119
unique hues, 112, 124
human spectral sensitivity
function, 81–82
hyperbolic tree browser, 340,
342
hyperlink text, 376
hypothesis formation,
visualization as aid in,
4
iconic memory, 148–149, 352
icons
image-based object
recognition and, 230,
232
user interrupts using,
361
illusory contours, 198–199
image-based object recognition
attentional blink, 228
canonical view, 230
defined, 227
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462 SUBJECT INDEX
neurophysiological data,
230, 231
priming effects, 229–230
rapid serial visual
presentation (RSVP),
228, 232
recall ability for images,
228
recognition vs. recall, 228
size and, 228–229
user interface applications,
230, 232
view direction and, 228
imagens, 297–298
images vs. words
animated images vs.
words, 305–306
overview, 303–304,
315–316
static images vs. words,
304
inattentional blindness, 359
independent variables, 403
information density, 164
information display. See also
computer monitors;
design
abilities of the eye and, 29
color channels and, 116
computer compared to
world, 29
costs of navigation,
376–379
depth of focus and, 42
guidelines for displaying
surfaces, 252, 254
optimal display, 62–67
perspective and total
information, 262,
263, 264
power law and, 84
visual query patterns,
375–376
information psychophysics, 395
instructional bias, 14
integer data, 25
integral and separable
dimensions
glyphs and, 177–178,
180–181
pairs of, 180–181
separating row and column
information and, 191
intelligent zooming, 340
interaction metaphors, 327. See
also spatial navigation
metaphors
interactive data display
brushing technique, 348,
376
costs of navigation,
376–379
dynamic queries, 346, 348,
376
interactive data mapping,
345–346
parallel coordinates
technique, 348–349
visual query patterns,
375–376
interactive visualization. See
also thinking with
visualizations; specific
loops
data selection and
manipulation loop,
317, 318–324
exploration and
navigation loop, 317,
325–349
implications from visual
problem solving
model, 374–379
overview, 317–318
problem-solving loop,
317–318
transparency principle,
345, 349–350
interface design. See also data
selection and
manipulation loop for
interaction;
exploration and
navigation loop for
interaction; virtual-
reality (VR) displays
2D positioning and
selection, 319–320
affordance theory and,
18–20
choice reaction time,
318–319
closure (Gestalt law) and,
196, 197
control compatibility,
322–324
costs of navigation,
376–379
depth cues and, 282–283
FACS and avatar creation,
238
frames of reference,
333–337
hover queries, 320–321, 376
icons, 230, 232
image-based object
recognition
applications, 230, 232
kinematic chain theory,
321
knowledge structure
interfaces, 379–383
magic lens, 322
path tracing, 321
problems with direct
perception for, 19–20
RSVP for image database
search, 232
selection time for graphical
interfaces, 319
spatial navigation
metaphors, 327–330
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Subject Index 463
toolglasses, 322
transparency for, 205–
206
transparency principle,
345, 349–350
two-handed interaction,
321–322
user interrupts, 360–361
vigilance tasks, 324
interference effects, 256–257
interval data
defined, 24
pseudocolor sequences,
132–133
real-number data and, 25
intrasaccadic scanning loop,
374
ISO standard for pointing
device use, 320
isoluminant patterns, 114
JND (just noticeable difference),
109
joystick. See pointing devices
just noticeable difference (JND),
109
KidSim animated visual
language, 312–315
kinematic chain theory, 321
kinetic depth effect, 269–270
K-means clustering, 401
knowledge structure interfaces
concept maps or mind
maps, 379–380
Constellation system, 380,
381
linking computer-based
analysis with
visualization,
380–383
trajectory mapping, 383
labeling. See also
pseudocoloring
color blindness and, 125
color conventions and, 125
contrast with background
and, 124–125
distinctness for color
labels, 123–124
families of colors for,
127
field size and, 125
gray scale deficiencies for
encoding, 75, 93–94
as nominal information
coding, 123
number of colors for,
125
recommended colors,
125
text labels for images,
307–309
unique hues for, 124
laciness effect, 205, 207
Lambertian shading
defined, 245
examples, 36
guidelines for displaying
surfaces, 252
overview, 35
for scalar field
representation,
245–246
surface shape perception
and, 247–248, 250
landmarks for wayfinding,
331–332
language
animated visual languages,
312–315
computer languages, 299,
301–302
deep structures of, 299
development in children,
299
dual coding theory,
297–299, 306
as dynamic and distributed
over time, 301
images vs. words, 303–306
links between images and
words, 306–311
logogens, 297–298
natural, 299, 301
sign language, 299–300
visual languages, 301–303
lateral geniculate nucleus
(LGN), 70, 71, 159
lateral inhibition, 77, 85
launching effect, 222
layered data
cast shadows and, 268,
269
transparency perception
and, 205–206
learning. See training or
learning
lens of the eye
camera analogy, 38–39
depth of focus and, 41–42
equation for imaging
properties, 41
illustrated, 39
nodal point, 41
letter acuity, 49
levels of measurement, 24–25
LGN (lateral geniculate
nucleus), 70, 71, 159
lightness. See also brightness;
luminance; reflected
light
defined, 80
luminance vs., 80, 84
preattentive processing of,
149, 150
lightness constancy
adaptation mechanism, 85
contrast mechanisms and,
86
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