Unger M.P. Historical Dictionary of Choral Music
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SERMISY, CLAUDIN DE (C. 1490–13 OCTOBER 1562). French
composer. He spent most of his career at the French royal court,
where he served several successive monarchs. He was also associ-
ated with the Sainte Chapelle du Palais in Paris. Widely renowned in
his day, he is best remembered for his chansons, of which more than
150 securely attributed pieces survive, most of them for four voices.
These delicate and sophisticated works are considered to represent
the pinnacle of the lyrical type of “Parisian” chanson. Their popu-
larity resulted in wide dissemination in both vocal and instrumental
versions.
Other surviving works include a dozen masses (mostly of the
parody type) and a Requiem, 80 motets (mostly for four voices),
a cycle of Magnificat settings (one for each of the eight tones), a
polyphonic St. Matthew Passion, and other liturgical pieces, most
of them for Holy Week. His music is characterized by consonant
harmonies, gracious melodies, and formal lucidity. Polyphonic
considerations are subject to an overall sensitivity to the inflec-
tion and meaning of the text, and a concomitant desire to present
it clearly.
SERVICE. A public act of religious worship following prescribed rules.
In the Anglican context, the term refers to a musical setting of some
or all of the canticles for Morning Prayer (Matins) and Evensong,
parts of the Ordinary of Holy Communion, and sentences from the
Burial Service. Service settings are unified by their musical style and
their mode or key. The stylistic developments and representative
composers of service music are essentially the same as those pertain-
ing to the English anthem. For an account of the Anglican service’s
historical origins and an itemization of its musical components see
ENGLISH CATHEDRAL MUSIC OF THE REFORMATION AND
RESTORATION.
SHAPE-NOTE NOTATION. Musical notation in which note heads
of varying shapes are assigned to individual degrees of the musical
scale (according to various systems of solmization) to aid singers
who have little musical expertise in sight-singing. Many hymnals
with such notation were published in rural America during the 1800s,
the most famous of which was The Sacred Harp (1844). Both four-
shape and seven-shape systems were used in shape-note notation; of
the two, the four-note system was the more common one.
402 • SERMISY, CLAUDIN DE
SHAW, ROBERT (30 APRIL 1916–25 JANUARY 1999). American
conductor, best remembered for his choral performances and record-
ings. While a student at Pomona College in California (1934–38),
he directed the student glee club. His work was noticed by Fred
Waring, who invited him to come to New York to organize the Fred
Waring Glee Club. In 1941 he founded the Collegiate Chorale, an
amateur ensemble in New York of more than 100 singers, which he
directed until 1954. He also founded and directed the Robert Shaw
Chorale (1948–65), a professional ensemble with whom he toured
and recorded extensively, and for whom he commissioned works by
many composers, including Béla Bartók, Darius Milhaud, Aaron
Copland, Samuel Barber, Benjamin Britten, and Lukas Foss.
From 1956 he was assistant conductor under George Szell of the
Cleveland Orchestra, where he organized a remarkable orchestra
chorus. From 1967 to 1988 he was conductor of the Atlanta Sym-
phony Orchestra.
Shaw’s techniques and innovations (such as seating a choir in
mixed quartets for better blend) have been widely imitated in the
United States, and his arrangements of folksongs and spirituals
(many made in collaboration with Alice Parker) have provided high-
quality repertoire for schools and colleges. His professional choir
(along with the Roger Wagner Chorale) provided the inspiration
for the founding of similar groups by Gregg Smith, Dale Warland,
and others.
SHCHEDRIN, RODION (16 DECEMBER 1932– ). Russian com-
poser. His works synthesize a wide range of styles and techniques,
while incorporating Russian literary and folk traditions. Examples of
his choral works include the satirical cantata Byurokratiada, for solo
vv., chorus, and orch. (1963); the oratorio Lenin v serdtse narodnom
[Lenin in the Heart of the People], after folksong texts, for solo vv.,
chorus, and orch. (1969); Zapechatlyonnïy angel [The Sealed Angel],
a setting of Orthodox texts for unaccompanied chorus and shepherd’s
reed pipe (1988); Moleniye [Prayer], on a text by Yehudi Menuhin,
for chorus and orch. (1991); and unaccompanied choruses to texts by
Aleksandr Pushkin and others.
SHEPPARD, JOHN (C. 1515–DECEMBER 1558). English com-
poser. Little is known of his life, except that he was a Gentleman of
the Chapel Royal, ending his career under Mary Tudor (r. 1553–58).
SHEPPARD, JOHN • 403
His Latin-texted works (which survive in greater number than his
English ones) include some 5 masses (4 for four voices, 1 for six
voices), 2 Magnificat settings, and some 65 motets for four or more
voices (several of them incomplete but restorable by the addition of
the chant). Surviving English works include 3 incomplete services
plus individual pieces for the service (often incomplete), 15 anthems
(about half of them incomplete), 41 psalm tunes, and 1 secular piece.
Sheppard liked full sonorities; his Latin motets for many-voiced
choir and his services for the English rite are noteworthy for their
splendor.
SHOSTAKOVICH, DMITRI (12/25 SEPTEMBER 1906–9 AU-
GUST 1975). Russian composer, best remembered for his 15 sym-
phonies, chamber works, and concertos. Although supportive of
socialist ideals, he came under criticism from the Stalinist regime
for writing music that was formalistic (i.e., elitist and not uplifting
for the masses). While he tried to accommodate himself to Soviet
demands (even withdrawing some of his works), his relationship
with government authorities remained uneasy. Three of his sympho-
nies employ chorus: no. 2, op. 14 [To October], for B, with chorus
in finale (1927); no. 3 [The First of May], op. 20, with chorus in
finale (1929); and no. 13 [Babiy Yar], op. 113, for B, B chorus, and
orch. (1962). The last of these, whose texts deal with genocide dur-
ing World War II, is exceedingly somber and intense. Other choral
works include the oratorio Pesn o lesakh [Song of the Forests], op.
81, for T, B, boys’ chorus, chorus, and orch. (1949), written with his
critic’s demand for socialist realism in mind; Ten Poems, op. 88, for
mixed chorus (1951), employing turn-of-the-century revolutionary
poetry; Nad rodinoy nashey solntse siyayet [The Sun Shines over
Our Motherland], op. 90, a cantata for boys’ chorus, chorus, and
orch. (1952); and Vernost [Loyalty], op. 136—eight ballads for male
chorus (1970); among a dozen or so other works, many of them on
patriotic themes.
SHOW CHOIR. A choir that combines dancing and singing in its
performances.
SIBELIUS, JEAN (8 DECEMBER 1865–20 SEPTEMBER 1957).
Finnish composer, best remembered for his symphonies. Although he
learned Finnish only after the age of 11, he became enamored with
404 • SHOSTAKOVICH, DMITRI
the mythology and landscape of his native country, leading to the
composition of profoundly nationalist works. Widespread resentment
at Russian domination inspired him to write Kullervo, op. 7, a choral
symphony for S, Bar., male chorus, and orch. (1892), based on the
national epic Kalevala. This piece marked the beginning of a lifelong
quest to establish a national style that reached beyond a literal quota-
tion of folksong to its animating essence. On the other hand, Sibelius
also desired to be accepted by the European mainstream. These two
somewhat contradictory impulses led him to hover between tradi-
tional European neo-Romanticism and Finnish neo-primitivism. Ulti-
mately, he became alienated from the more sensationalist modernism
of composers such as Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, causing
him to withdraw artistically during the final decades of his life, so
that after the late 1920s he produced only a handful of small pieces.
While secondary to his symphonic works, Sibelius’s choral works
are numerous: more than 70 pieces, both accompanied and unaccom-
panied, especially cantatas and many partsongs, survive. Nearly
half are for male chorus. Some are overtly political, siding with the
national resistance: Islossningen i Uleå älv [The Breaking of the Ice
on the Oulu River], op. 30, for reciter, male chorus, and orch. (1899);
Har du mod? [Do You Have courage?], op. 31/2, for male chorus and
orch. (1904; rev. male chorus and pf., 1912); Atenarnes sång [Song
of the Athenians], op. 31/3, originally for boys’ chorus, male chorus,
ww., brass, db., and perc. (1899); Isänmaalle [To the Fatherland],
for unacc. chorus (1900, arr. male chorus, 1908); and Jääkärien
marssi [Jäger March], op. 91a, for male chorus and pf. (1917, arr.
orch., male chorus ad lib., 1918). Late works include three cantatas
for mixed chorus and orchestra: Oma maa [Our Native Land], op. 92
(1918), Jordens sång [Song of the Earth], op. 93 (1919), and Maan
virsi [Hymn to the Earth], op. 95 (1920). An earlier cantata of con-
siderable expressiveness is Tulen synty [The Origin of Fire], op. 32,
for male chorus and orch. (1902).
SING-AKADEMIE. A Berlin choral society formed in 1791 by
Carl Friedrich Fasch. In 1800 Carl Friedrich Zelter took over
its direction, remaining at the helm until his death in 1832. The so-
ciety performed many works by Johann Sebastian Bach, George
Frideric Handel, and other historical composers. Its most famous
performance was the 1829 revival of Bach’s St. Matthew Passion,
SING-AKADEMIE • 405
organized and led by the young Felix Mendelssohn. The term Sin-
gakademie was later appropriated by other choral societies. See also
SINGING SOCIETIES.
SINGING CITY. A Philadelphia choral ensemble dedicated to foster-
ing a sense of community among its singers and audiences. Founded
as a racially integrated choir in 1948 by Elaine Brown, it grew out
of the Fellowship House movement, which believed that differences
among races, religions, and cultures could be bridged by bringing
people together in shared activities. Brown conducted Singing City
until her retirement in 1987. The choir currently numbers over 100.
SINGING SCHOOLS. Instructional sessions for singing and music
reading in Colonial America. See also BILLINGS, WILLIAM;
HASTINGS, THOMAS; MASON, LOWELL.
SINGING SERGEANTS. Official chorus of the United States Air
Force. Formed in 1945 from within the ranks of The United States
Air Force Band, the chorus is now a fully professional ensemble. All
members are sergeants in the United States Air Force. The choir has
performed for every American president since Harry S. Truman, and
has toured extensively at home and abroad.
SINGING SOCIETIES (CHORAL SOCIETIES). Organizations
founded to perform choral works in a concert or convivial setting.
Their rise coincided with the proliferation of large-scale festival
performances of George Frideric Handel’s oratorios, especially in
English and German-speaking countries.
The most influential early society was the Berlin Sing-Akademie,
founded in 1791 by Carl Friedrich Christian Fasch, and led after
his death by Carl Friedrich Zelter. Of particular importance in
England was the establishment in 1806 of the Birmingham Oratorio
Choral Society, which supplied singers for the triennial festival in
Birmingham and sang in other venues between festivals. It became
a model for many other English societies, including the Norwich
Choral Society (1824). In the United States, the movement caught on
quickly with the founding of Boston’s Handel and Haydn Society
(1815).
In Germany, many societies were restricted to men. The first of
these was founded in 1808 by Zelter from his larger Sing-Akademie
(the inaugural meeting was in January of 1809). He named it a Lie-
406 • SINGING CITY
dertafel (“song-table”), evidently in reference to the convivial and
nationalistic nature of the group’s gatherings. Soon similar male cho-
ral organizations sprang up throughout Germany—in Frankfurt an der
Oder (1815), Leipzig (1815), Thüringen (1818), Magdeburg (1819),
Münster (1822), Hamburg (1823), Minden (1824), Bremen (1827),
and Bielefeld (1831), to name some of the earliest ones.
In France, the equivalent of the Liedertafel was the orphéon. It
developed through the work of Guillaume Louis Bocquillon Wilhem
(1781–1842), a teacher of singing in schools. In 1833 he founded a
choral society in Paris for the benefit of his students. It developed
rapidly into a national movement known as L’Orphéon, and by 1900
there were more than 2,000 societies in the country.
SISTINE CHAPEL CHOIR. See CAPPELLA SISTINA.
SIXTEEN, THE. English choral ensemble of 16 singers and period-
instrument orchestra. Since its founding in 1979 by conductor
Harry Christophers, the choir has established an enviable reputation
through highly acclaimed recordings and tours. Dedicated especially
to the performance of early music, it also conducts annual “Choral
Pilgrimages,” mounting performances of early English polyphony in
the cathedrals for which the music was originally intended.
SLØGEDAL, BJARNE (13 JUNE 1927– ). Norwegian composer,
conductor, and organist, who initiated the International Church Mu-
sic Festival at Kristiansand Cathedral (southwest of Oslo). In the U.S.
his best-known work is the motet, Antiphone de morte.
SMETANA, BEDRICH (2 MARCH 1824–12 MAY 1884). Czech
composer who devoted himself to creating a national opera style.
Except for some periods in Sweden (the most extensive of which was
from 1856 to 1859), he spent his career in Prague, where he became
a self-conscious nationalist. Having received his formal education in
German, he worked assiduously to improve his command of Czech.
From 1863 to 1865 he conducted the Czech choral society Hlahol,
which had recently been established. Most of his choral works were
written for this group.
In 1866 he achieved a cherished dream of being appointed princi-
pal conductor of the Royal Provincial Czech Theater (known as the
Provisional Theater), the first permanent Czech professional stage.
He worked there for eight years (the last two as artistic director),
SMETANA, BEDRICH • 407
conducting not only operas but also orchestral concerts. Having to
resign in 1874 because of deafness (a result of syphilis) did not stop
him from composing. The last decade of his life saw him produce
his widely admired cycle of six symphonic poems, Má Vlast (My
Country), three more operas, string quartets, and nine more works
for chorus, including Písen
ˇ
na mor
ˇ
i (Song of the Sea) and two pieces
written for the 20th anniversary of the Prague Hlahol: Ve
ˇ
no (Dedica-
tion) and Modlitba (Prayer).
While ultimately regarded as the foremost musical representative
of Czech nationalism, Smetana was nevertheless indebted to Western
European traditions; Franz Liszt, a friend and mentor throughout
his life, was a particularly significant influence. He drew very little
on folk music, although he did employ popular dance rhythms such
as the polka. Nevertheless, the enduring qualities of his work earned
him a permanent place in the hearts of the Czech people, and laid the
groundwork for Leoš Janác´ek and other more explicitly nationalist
composers.
Smetana’s choral works, which comprise some 18 individual
pieces, focus on nationalist texts and themes. Most are unaccompa-
nied; fully a dozen are for male chorus. Examples include Tr
ˇ
i jezdci
[The Three Riders], for TTBB (1862); Odrodilec, for TTBB, TTBB
(1863, rev. for soloists and TTBB, 1864); and Rolnická [Farming],
for TTBB (1868). The only work with orchestra is the third and final
version of C
ˇ
eská písen
ˇ
[Czech Song], for SATB and orch. (1878).
SMITH, CRAIG (31 JANUARY 1947–14 NOVEMBER 2007). Foun-
der and director of Emmanuel Music, Ensemble-in-Residence at
Emmanuel Episcopal Church, Boston. Between 1970 and 1977, he
presented the complete set of Johann Sebastian Bach’s sacred can-
tatas in their liturgical setting. Thereafter, Bach’s cantatas continued
to be part of the weekly services. With stage director Peter Sellars he
recorded staged versions of various works, including some Bach can-
tatas. He also collaborated regularly with choreographer Mark Morris
and his Dance Group.
SMITH, GREGG (21 AUGUST 1931– ). American composer and
choral conductor. While enrolled at the University of California at
Los Angeles (UCLA), he studied composition privately with Leonard
Stein (a student of Arnold Schoenberg). After graduating in 1954,
he continued in the graduate degree program in composition, study-
408 • SMITH, CRAIG
ing with Lukas Foss. The choral director at UCLA encouraged him
to become involved in choral conducting, and in 1955 he formed
the Gregg Smith Singers, a professional choir, based first in Los
Angeles, then (from the early 1970s) in New York. With this group
he toured internationally and made more than 100 recordings. He
became an expert on the music of Arnold Schoenberg and Igor
Stravinsky, recording many of the latter’s choral pieces in the de-
cade before the composer’s death in 1971.
Throughout his career, Smith encouraged the development and
preservation of American choral music—premiering many new
works by contemporary composers. He himself produced dozens of
original choral works and hundreds of choral arrangements.
SMYTH, DAME ETHEL (22 APRIL 1858–8 MAY 1944). English
composer and writer. She studied at the Leipzig Conservatory, and
received encouragement from Johannes Brahms, Piotr Ilyitch
Tchaikovsky, Edvard Grieg, and Clara Schumann. Passionate by
nature, she led a turbulent personal life, which included a militant
campaign for women’s suffrage. Her musical style was indebted to
German romanticism, especially the music of Brahms. While her
main interest was opera, she also wrote significant choral works.
They include The Song of Love, op. 8, a cantata for S, T, chorus, and
orch. (1888); Mass in D, for S, A, T, B, chorus, and orch. (1891, rev.
1925); A Spring Canticle, for chorus and orch. (1901); Hey Nonny
No!, for chorus and orch. (1910, rev. 1920); Sleepless Dreams, for
chorus and orch. (1910); The March of the Women, for unison vv.
(1910); The Prison, for S, B, chorus, and orch. (1930); and a few
partsongs.
SOLER, ANTONIO (BAPTIZED 3 DECEMBER 1729; DIED 20
DECEMBER 1783). Catalan composer and organist. In 1752 he
joined the Hieronymite monastic order at El Escorial (near Madrid),
becoming the permanent organist there. Some years later he became
the maestro de capilla—probably in 1757 at the death of Padre
Gabriel de Moratilla. Since Ferdinand VI (with his consort Maria
Bárbara, who took lessons from Domenico Scarlatti) and, later,
Carlos III liked to spend each autumn at El Escorial, Soler may have
studied with Scarlatti. He was a prolific composer of keyboard works
and church music. Surviving works include 10 masses, 5 Requiems,
51 psalms, 13 Magnificats, 14 litanies, and much other liturgical
SOLER, ANTONIO • 409
music. Also extant are more than 130 villancicos, many of them for
the feast days of St. Lawrence (patron saint of El Escorial) and St.
Jerome (patron saint of the Hieronymite order).
SOLMIZATION. A system of designating pitches with syllables to
indicate melodic intervals. Its purpose is to facilitate music learning.
The first system was developed by Guido of Arezzo (b. c. 991; d.
after 1033). Today the two primary systems in the Western world
are “fixed doh” (in which the syllable doh is assigned to the note C
regardless of tonality) and “moveable doh” (in which doh is assigned
to the tonic). The “tonic sol-fa” system was propagated during the
latter half of the 19th century by the English Congregationalist min-
ister John Curwen, who devoted his life to perfecting and teaching
the method.
SOMERS, HARRY (11 SEPTEMBER 1925–9 MARCH 1999).
Canadian composer. He studied at the University of Toronto, then
won scholarships for studies in Paris (1949–50 and 1960, the former
period with Darius Milhaud) and Rome (1969–71). Never holding
permanent employment, he supported himself with various part-time
jobs, among them, music copyist, radio and television broadcaster,
and educational consultant. An interest in non-Western culture was
reinforced by a 1971 journey through India, Nepal, Thailand, and
Bali, and by his second wife, the actress Barbara Chilcott, who
was involved with non-Western religions and philosophy. Rather
than following English cathedral traditions, as transmitted by such
composers as Healey Willan, he drew together an eclectic array of
styles gleaned from contemporary figures in Europe and the United
States, combining them with elements of Baroque counterpoint and
Gregorian chant.
Best remembered for his operas, Somers nonetheless exerted
considerable influence with his choral works, which number more
than 20. Diverse examples include the metrically varied anthem
God, the Master of This Scene (1962); Gloria, for SATB, 2 tpt., and
org. (1964); Wonder Song (1964), a whimsical unaccompanied piece
for use in schools; the ever-popular Songs from the Newfoundland
Outports, for SATB and pf. (1969); Kyrie, for S, A, T, B, chorus, 8
insts., perc., and tape (1972), in which the phonetic sounds of the text
supersede their semantic meaning; Trois chansons de la nouvelle-
France, for mixed choir and piano (1976); and Limericks, for Mez.,
410 • SOLMIZATION
SATB, and ens. (1980), a bawdy tribute to Willan on the centenary
of his birth. Noteworthy, too, is Chura-Churum, for 8 vocal soloists,
fl., hp., pf., and 4 perc. (1985), an avant-garde piece in which the
vocalists sing into individual microphones, each connected to dif-
ferent loudspeakers located around the hall. The singers move from
one microphone to another, rendering phonemes from a Sanskrit text
combined with other vocal sounds.
SORIANO, FRANCESCO (1548/59–19 JULY 1621). Italian com-
poser. He was a choirboy under Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina
at San Giovanni in Laterano (Basilica of St. John Lateran), then later
served the Gonzaga family in Mantua, as well as several notable
churches in Rome. From 1599 to 1601 he was maestro di cappella
at San Giovanni in Laterano and from 1603 to 1620 he was maestro
of the Cappella Giulia (St. Peter’s). In 1611 a papal commission
appointed him and Felice Anerio to complete the revision of chant
books begun by Palestrina and Annibale Zoilo.
Soriano was one of the more conservative composers in the gen-
eration after Palestrina, emphasizing full textures and contrapuntal
techniques. Surviving works include a volume of motets for eight
voices (1597), a volume of masses for four, five, six, and eight
voices (among them, a double-choir arrangement in eight voices of
Palestrina’s Missa Papae Marcelli); a volume of polychoral psalms
and motets for eight, 12, and 16 voices, with continuo (1616); some
Passion and Magnificat settings (1619); 3 volumes of counter-
point-laden madrigals for four to six voices (1581, 1592, 1601); and
a volume of contrapuntal works entitled Canoni et oblighi, for three
to eight voices (1610).
SOWERBY, LEO (1 MAY 1895–7 JULY 1968). American composer
and church musician. After studies at the American Conservatory in
Chicago, he won the American Prix de Rome, which allowed him to
spend three years in Italy (1921–24). After returning to the United
States, he taught at his alma mater (1925–62), while serving as organ-
ist and choirmaster at St. James’s Episcopal Cathedral (1927–62).
Sowerby’s works employ Baroque contrapuntal forms and an oc-
casionally pungent harmonic language (sometimes evidently derived
from American folk music or jazz). His many choral works include
A Liturgy of Hope, a cantata for S and male chorus (1917); an un-
titled cantata on psalm verses (1924); The Vision of Sir Launfal, for
SOWERBY, LEO • 411