Tietenberg Tom, Lewis Lynne. Environmental & Natural Resource Economics
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
poaching, 349
policy enforcement issues, 347–348
protected areas and reserves, 345–347
quota systems, 341
raising real costs as policy approach, 336–338
static efficient sustainable yield, 325–327
subsidies and buy backs, 345
sustainability and, 326
taxes as policy approach, 338–339
toxins in fish, 478
trade restrictions to influence harmful fishing
practices, 551
Fixed cost, 216, 225, 227
Fleet average standard, 449–450
Floods, inefficient conversion, 243
Flows, valuing, 98
Food
additives, 532
biomass fuels influencing price of, 174
labels, 281, 282
population growth and cost of, 579
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
262–263, 291
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 478, 512
Food chains, persistent pollutants
and, 477–479
Food stamp programs, 285
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), 308
Forests
biological model of tree growth, 295
carbon sequestration credits, 311–314
debt-nature swaps, 308–309
harvest decisions, 294–299
introduction to, 293–294
perverse incentives for landowners, 302
perverse incentives for nations, 304–305
policies, 307–311
poverty and debt creating pressure
on, 305–306
reserves, easements, and land trusts, 309–311
royalty payments for drugs derived from, 311
single harvest model, 299–300
single harvest model extended to include
interdependencies, 299–301
sustainability, 306–307
unique attributes of timber resource, 294–295
Fossil fuels
climate change and, 151, 425
taxing to promote conservation, 155
See also Oil
651Subject Index
Free riders
climate change and, 426
inefficiency resulting from, 33
Freshwater. See Water
FSC (Forest Stewardship Council), 308
Fuel cells, 175
Fuel taxes, as emission control measure, 460–461
Fuels (vehicle)
alternative, 452–453, 458–459
fuel efficiency standard, 451
Full cost pricing
road users, 594–596
water pricing in Canada, 229
Fund pollutants
control policies, 370–375
cost-effective allocations, 376
efficient allocations, 365–368
emission charges, 371–373
emission standards, 370–371
emission trading, 373–375
overview of, 362–365
water pollution and, 474–478, 486
Gaia hypothesis (Lovelock), 6
GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade),
549, 550–551
GDP (gross domestic product)
measure of economic development, 553
weakness of national accounting system, 597
GEMS (Global Environmental Monitoring
System), 408
Genetic diversity, 31, 76, 201
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs),
273, 280, 281, 282
Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI), 556–557
Genuine savings. See Adjusted net savings
Geoengineering approaches. See Adaptation,
climate change policy
Geographic Information Systems. See GIS
(Geographic Information Systems)
Geothermal energy, 174
Gini coefficient, inequality in land ownership, 557
GIS (Geographic Information Systems)
agriculture-related data, 291
economic valuation, 92–93, 94
hazardous waste site distribution analysis,
519–520
population data, 586
water allocation analysis, 233
water quality trading programs and, 493
Global climate model., 437
Global Environmental Facility (GEF),
434–435, 438
Global Environmental Monitoring System,
(GEMS), 408
Global food crisis
formulating scarcity hypothesis, 264–266
overview of, 264
testing scarcity hypothesis, 266–267
Global pollutants, 425–427
See also Climate change
Global population growth, 565
Global scope, of environmental problems, 5
GMOs (genetically modified organisms),
281–282
Government
evaluating efficient role of, 42
property taxes and, 249–251
role relative to pollution control, 549–550
as source of market inefficiency, 35–38
See also Policies
Government failure, in resource allocation, 35–37
GPI (Genuine Progress Indicator), 556–557
Grazing rights, 253
Green revolution, 285–286
Greenhouse gases
biomass fuels and, 173
carbon sequestration credits, 311–313
climate change and, 3, 159, 425–426
distributional effects of climate-change
policies, 541
Gross domestic product. See GDP
(gross domestic product)
Gross National Happiness measure,
Bhutan, 558–559
Groundwater
allocation of, 208–209
common property problems, 217–219
contamination, 92, 472–475
depletion, 211–212
overview of, 211–212
pollution, 472
Growth-development relationship, 552–562
alternative measures of, 555–560
conventional measures of growth, 553–555
income inequality effects, 557
industrialized nations and, 558
traditional growth model, 554–555
Growth, economic. See Economic development
652 Subject Index
Happiness economics, 560
“Hartwick Rule”, 110–111, 114, 543
Harvest models, forests
decision-making and, 318–319
interdependencies added to single harvest model,
299–300
single harvest, 299–300
Hazardous pollutants, air pollution, 421
Hazardous waste
applying GIS to site distribution, 519–520
distribution of site locations, 518–519
economics of hazardous waste site locations,
520–522
minority neighborhoods and, 522
scale of problem, 534
See also Toxic substance pollution
HDI (Human Development Index), 558, 561
HDPE plastics
recycled uses, 197
Health effects, toxic substance pollution, 510
Health, socioeconomic status and, 509
Health thresholds, Clean Air Act, 401–402
Heat waves, climate change and, 3
Hedonic property approach, 91
Hedonic wage approach, 91, 96
High-grading, in fisheries management, 343
The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire (Gibbon), 1
HIV/AIDS, death rates and, 577–578
Hoarding, 6
Host fees, landfills and, 200
Housing values, polluting facilities impact on, 520
Hubbert’s peak, 141
Human behavior, scarcity and, 6–7, 8–9
Human Development Index (HDI), 558
Human/environment relationship
benefit-cost analysis, 47
benefit-cost analysis applied to pollution
control, 54–56
benefit-cost analysis over time, 52–53
demand curves and, 21
dynamic efficiency in allocation of resources, 53
economic approach to, 19
environment as an asset, 17–19
issues in valuing environment, 10–19
opportunity costs and, 47
optimal outcomes, 48–50
overview of, 16
preservation vs. development and, 56
static efficiency in allocation of resources, 20–22
total costs, 47
total willingness to pay, 21
Human life, valuing, 93–98
Hurricanes, 156
Hybrid crops, 285–286
Hydroelectric power, 170–171
Hydrogen
as alternative to oil, 154
barriers to use of, 175
overview of, 174
subsidies for development of, 175–176
Hydrologic cycle, 205
Hypothetical biases, contingent valuation, 83–84
I&M (Inspection and Maintenance) programs,
car emissions and, 458
Impact analysis, 68–69
Incentives. See Economic incentives
Income
defined, 523
relationship of environmental degradation to
levels of, 547
Income distribution, poor and, 285
Income elasticity of demand (oil), 148
Income inequality
effects of economic development on, 557
population growth and, 579
Indigenous people, respecting rights of, 248,
304, 307, 309
Indirect valuation methods
attribute-based, 87–88
averting or defensive expenditures, 92
hedonic property and hedonic wage, 93–95
overview of, 82
travel-costs, 91
Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs),
339–344
Indivisible consumption, 31
“Induced innovation hypothesis” (Boserup),
546–547
Industrial Revolution, 3
Industrialized nations
agriculture in, 280
air pollution in, 408, 426
deforestation in, 305, 313
dependence on oil and natural gas, 170
e-waste disposal, 532
growth-development relationship, 594
Kyoto Protocol’s Annex B list, 432
653Subject Index
land consumption in, 558
need for new model for development, 562, 594
Industries
water pricing policies and, 216–217
Infant mortality, 581, 584
Information biases, contingent
valuation, 83
INHALE (nonprofit organization), 417
Inheritance, 574
Inheritance taxes, 245
Instream flows
endangered species and, 224
England and Scotland, 223
inefficiencies in water allocation, 214
instream flows vs. consumptive uses of
water, 217–219
Intangible benefits, in benefit estimation, 58
Interactive resources, 320
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), 425
International Commission for the Conservation of
the Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT), 350
International cooperation
200-mile limit and, 347
climate change and, 427–430
global pollutants and, 424
scope of environmental problems and, 5
sustainable development and, 594–598
toxic substance pollution, 530–532
International gas taxes, 462
Intertemporal allocations
N-period constant-cost case, 124–125
overview of, 123
two-period model, 123
Intertemporal fairness
Alaska Permanent Fund and, 110
applying sustainability criterion, 110–113
fairness of efficient allocations, 108–109
implications for environmental policy, 113
overview of, 107–108
sustainable development and, 542–543
Intrinsic vs instrumental value, 76
Investor protections, NAFTA, 549–550
Irrigation
agricultural productivity and, 274
of arid regions, 12
Isoquant, 186
Itai itai disease, 479
ITQs (Individual Transferable Quotas), 339–343
enforcement of, 339–343
Jobs
environmental justice and, 524
environmental protection creating (Porter
induced innovation hypothesis), 546–547
environmental regulation and, 545
Joint implementation, in emission trading,
432–433
Judicial system. See Courts
Junior claims, in water sharing rights, 223
Kalundborg experiment, public/private
partnerships, 596
KCZ (Kakadu Conservation Zone), 56–57
KNP (Kakadu National Park), 57
Kyoto Protocol
“Clean Development Mechanism,” 433
emission trading programsand, 432, 439
European participaton in, 433
international agreements, 432–433
“Joint Implementation” (JI), 432–433
PCF investors and, 434
tradable allowance program, 431
Labor costs, recycling and, 183
Lakes
contamination of, 473
eutrophic, 477
Land
conservation banking, 251–252
conservation easements, 253–254
developing countries and, 246–249
development impact fees, 256
grazing rights, 253
incompatible uses, 242
introduction to, 237
land use, 238–239
land use conversion, 239–240
market-based policies, 249–250
market power and, 245
property rights, 249
property tax adjustments, 256–258
safe harbor agreements, 252–253
sprawl and leapfrogging, 240–241
taxes and land use conversion, 243–245
TDRs (Transferable Development Rights),
249–250
transport costs and land use, 446
trusts, 254–256
undervaluing environmental amenities, 242–243
wetlands banking, 250–251
654 Subject Index
Land trusts
forest protection, 309
overview of, 254–256
Land use conversion
impact of taxes on, 243–245
overview of, 239–240
public goods and, 245–246
Landfills, 200
See also Hazardous waste
Landowners, perverse incentives regarding
forest use, 301–304
Latency periods, toxic substances, 510
Law of comparative advantage, 283, 545
Law of diminishing marginal productivity,
570–571, 594
Law of diminishing returns, 571
LC (least-cost) method, effluent allocation, 488
LDCs (less developed countries). See Developing
countries
Lead
recycling, 185
regulating in fuel, 449
Lead phaseout program, 459
Leapfrogging, land use inefficiencies,
240–241
Least-cost (LC) method, effluent allocation,
488–489
Legal system. See Courts
Legislative role
pollution control, 593
recycling laws, 198
regulation of market efficiency, 41–42
water pollution, 480–483
Liability
consumer safety and, 518
court role in market efficiency, 39–41
government compensation scheme related
to nuclear power, 163
strict liability in common-law cases, 527
Life evaluation. See Cantril’s Self-Anchoring Scale
Liquid biofuels
economic impacts of, 173–174
Littering, 191
LNG (liquefied natural gas), 152
Local pollutants, 411–413, 420
The Los Negros scheme, 258
Love Canal, 508–509
Low-Emission Vehicles (LEVs), 452
Low-income communities, hazardous waste siting
and, 518–519
Marginal costs
depletable resource models, 127–128
exploration, 129
pricing efficiency and, 216
renewable substitutes and, 138–139
waste disposal vs. recycling, 191–192
Marginal external cost rule, 434
Marginal extraction costs
N-period constant-cost case and, 124–125
resources, 127–129
two-period model and, 123
Marginal lands, population growth and, 574
Marginal opportunity cost curve, 47
Marginal user costs, intertemporal scarcity
and, 106
Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA), 551
Marine protected areas (MPAs), 345–347
Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries
Act (1972), 484
Marine reserve, 345–347
Market allocations/efficiency
cartels and, 34
courts as mean of resolving, 39–41
efficiency of response to demand, 591
energy resources and, 169–170
externalities as sources of failure, 25–27
fairness of efficient allocations, 108–109
fisheries, 327–332
food, 265
government as source of inefficiency, 35–38
imperfect structures, 33–35
land use and, 245–246
legislative and executive regulation, 41–42
negotiation as mean of private resolution, 38
pollution control, 365–368, 375
property rights and, 23
public goods, 31–33
pursuit of, 38
recycling and, 187–188
resources, 131
search for solutions and, 562
sustainability and, 542–544, 591
Market economy, 23
Market equilibrium, distribution of net benefits
between consumers and producers, 20–21
Market failure, in externalities, 25–26
Marketing loan program, agricultural policies, 279
Maryland Environmental Law Society (MELS), 417
Matter/energy relationship, first law
of thermodynamics, 18
655Subject Index
Maximum sustainable yield, open-access
resources, 329
Maximum sustainable yield population, wildlife
populations, 322
MDGs (Millennium Development Goals), 564
Meta-analysis, valuing environment, 87
Methyl mercury, 478
Methyl tertiary butyl ethers (MTBEs), 459, 549
Microeconomic theory of fertility, 580
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 564
Minamata disease, 479
Minimum viable population, wildlife
populations, 322
Minke Whale, open-access harvesting, 330
Minorities, hazardous waste siting and, 522–523
Mitigation, climate change policy, 427
MMPA (Marine Mammal Protection Act), 551
Mobile-source air pollution
alternative fuels and vehicles, 452–455,
458–459
CAFE standards, 449–450
Clean Air Act, 455
congestion pricing, 461–462, 467
deterioration of new car emission rates,
457–459
differentiated regulation, 457
European approach to, 453–455
externalities, 445–446
feebate system, 464
fuel taxes, 460–461
history of, 446–447
implicit subsidies, 444–445
lead phaseout program, 459
overview of, 442–444
parking cash-outs, 464
PAYD (pay-as-you-drive) insurance, 464–465
perverse incentives in road transport, 446
private toll roads, 463
reform options, 460
retirement of older vehicles, 464–466
Singapore program, 463
technology forcing and sanctions, 456
uniformity of control, 457
U.S. approach to, 447–449
Models, for investigation of relationship between
economy and environment, 8
Monopolies
as violation of market efficiency, 33
Montreal Protocol (1988), 429
MPAs (marine protected areas), 345–346
MTBEs (methyl tertiary butyl ethers), 459, 549
Multilateral Fund, 429
Municipal policies, water pricing, 216–217
Myopia, 132
N-period constant-cost case, 124–125
N-period constant-cost, no-substitute case,
137–138
NAFTA (North American Free Trade
Agreement), 548, 549–550
National Acid Rain Precipitation Assessment
Program, 412
National Environmental Policy Act (1969), 69
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), 84
National security, dependence on oil
and, 152–153
Nations, perverse incentives regarding
forest use, 304–305
Natura Bolivia (environmental group), 258
Natural capital, 112
Natural equilibrium, wildlife populations, 321
Natural gas
Industrialized nations dependence on, 140
price controls, 142–146
Natural resource curse, 551–552
Natural Resources Defense Council, 485
The Nature Conservancy
ecotourism promoted by, 257
instream flows protected by acquiring water
rights, 223
public goods provided by, 33
NDP (net domestic product), 553
Negative feedback loops, 6, 574
Negligence, common-law system and, 525–527
Negotiation
climate change and, 42, 71
difficult when large numbers involved, 40
private resolution of market inefficiencies, 38
Neoclassical economics, 7
Net benefits, 49
Net domestic product (NDP), 553
Neurological disorders, 478
New scrap, 189
New Source Review (NSR), 400, 401
NGOs (nongovernmental organizations), 308
Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation, 417
NIMBY (Not in My Backyard),
521, 524
Nitrogen charge (Swedish example), 384
656 Subject Index
Nitrogen Credit Exchange, 493
Nitrogen oxide emissions
cost-effectiveness analysis (Chicago
example), 68
emissions trading, 377
mobile-source air pollution and, 443
NOx Budget Trading Program, 377
regional pollutants, 411
NO2. See Nitrogen oxide emissions
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration), 84
Nonattainment region, 398
Noncompliance penalty, 400
Nonconsumptive uses, of water. See
Instream flows
Nonconsumptive use values. See Passive
use values
Nonexcludability, of public goods, 31
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 308
Nonpoint sources
lack of protection against, 509
regulation of, 482–483
water pollution, 472, 494–497
Nonrenewable resource, 217, 543
Nonuniformly mixed pollutants, 379–381
Nonuse values
contingent valuation for measuring, 89
economic value of resources, 80
Normative economics
decision-making and, 46
vs. positive economics, 19
See also Benefit-cost analysis
North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA), 548, 549–550
Northern Spotted Owl, 81, 301–302
Not in My Backyard (NIMBY), 521, 524
NSR (New Source Review), 400, 401
Nuclear accidents, 159–160
Nuclear power
disposing of nuclear waste, 160–161
efficient level of precaution in use of, 161–162
expense of building nuclear power plants, 160
See also Uranium
Nuclear program, France, 161
Nutrient sensitive waters, 495
O3. See Ozone
Obama administration, 466
Occidental Petroleum, 508
Occupational hazards, 513–516
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), 515, 536
Oceans
contamination sources, 473
depletion of fisheries, 49
discharge regulations, 483
pollution, 484–485
stock pollutants, 479
tidal power, 173
Office of Environmental Equity, 522
OFPA (Organic Foods Production Act), 275
Oil
cartels. See Cartels
Hubbert’s peak, 141
income elasticity of demand, 148
non-OPEC suppliers, 148–149
price elasticity of demand, 147–148
price sensitivity of demand, 590
unconventional sources of, 157–159
U.S. dependence on oil imports, 154
See also Fossil fuels
Oil and gas from shale, 157–158
Oil Pollution Act (1990), 484
Oil spills
frequency of, 474
ocean pollution and, 484
water pollution and, 498–499
Old scrap, 189
OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries)
cohesiveness of oil cartel, 149–151
as example of a cartel, 34
income elasticity of demand for oil and, 148
non-OPEC suppliers, 148–149
overview of, 146
price elasticity of demand for oil and, 147–148
role in setting oil prices, 36
Open-access resources
harvesting of Minke Whale, 330
maximum sustainable yield and, 329
overview of, 28–29
See also Common-pool resources
Open systems, 18
Opportunity costs, 47
Optimal outcomes, human/environment
relationship, 48–49
Optimal rotation, forest harvests, 300
Optimization procedure, in cost-effectiveness
analysis, 67
Option values, economic value of resources, 79–80
657Subject Index
Ore
depletion and recycling, 183–184
mining low grade vs. high grade, 180–181
recyclable resources vs. virgin materials,
200–201
recycling copper, 182
Organic certification, 277
Organic foods, 274–275
Organic Foods Production Act (OFPA), 275
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries.
See OPEC (Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries)
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration), 515, 536
OTC (Ozone Transport Commission), 377
Output measures, of economic development, 553
Overallocation, 145
Overshoot and collapse, resource allocation,
118, 135, 144
Oxygen sag, 476
Ozone
air quality trends and, 407
depletion, 429
mobile-source air pollution and, 443
particulate and smog controversy, 402
regional pollutants, 411
tradable allowances for ozone depleting
chemicals, 428–430
Ozone-depleting gases, 427–433
Ozone Transport Commission (OTC), 377
Pareto optimality, 51
Parking
implicit subsidies, 444
sprawl resulting from free parking policies, 241
Passive use values
contingent valuation for measuring, 89
in damage assessment, 89
PAYD (pay-as-you-drive) insurance, 464–465
PCF (Prototype Carbon Fund), 434
Peaking units, in electricity production, 164
Peak-load pricing, 164
Peak periods, 164
Pecuniary externalities, 262
Performance bonds, 534–535
Persistent pollutants, 477
Perverse incentives
for landowners regarding forest use, 301–304
for nations regarding forest use, 304–305
road transport and, 446
Pesticides
as environmental cost, 272–273
PET bottles
recycled uses, 197
Pharmaceutical drugs, royalty payments used to
protect forests, 311–312
Photovoltaics, 171
Planning horizon model, 299–300
Plastic bags, Irish bag levy, 389
Poaching, 349
Point sources
legislation controlling, 481–482
water pollution, 472
Policies
agricultural/food, 278–280, 284
climate change, 151
compensation as policy instrument, 525
electricity conservation, 163
environmental justice, 522–524
intertemporal fairness, 110–113
land use, 248
market correcting, 249
national security, 152
population control, 582–584
price controls, 142–143
recycling, 192–197
sustainable development, 596–597
water pricing, 215–216
Policies, fisheries, 339–345
enforcement issues, 347–348
raising real costs as policy approach, 336–338
subsidies, 345
taxes, 339–340
Policies, forest-related
carbon sequestration credits, 311–314
debt-nature swaps, 308–309
overview of, 307
reserves, easements, and land trusts, 309–311
restoring efficient incentives, 307–308
royalty payments for drugs derived from, 311
Policies, pollution
acid rain, 414–416
distributional effects of, 542–543
emission charges, 371–373
emission standards, 370
emission trading, 373–375
fund pollutant control, 370–371
overview of, 366–368
toxic substance pollution, 510–511
Political processes
658 Subject Index
dealing with regional pollutants, 414
as source of market inefficiency, 35–38
Pollution
air. See Air pollution
benefit-cost analysis applied to, 54–56
cities and, 42
damage estimates, 78–79
efficient allocations, 361
efficient policies, 366–368
environmental taxes in China, 367
EPA role in reducing air pollution, 20
externalities caused by, 26
fund pollutants. See Fund pollutants
global. See Global pollutants
government role in reducing, 593
human health and, 3
introduction to, 359
loss of use value, 8
market allocations, 365–366
market based instruments for, 375
nitrogen charge (Swedish example), 384
pollutant classification, 359–361
price volatility and, 387
product charges as indirect environmental
tax, 388
recyclable resources vs. virgin materials,
200–201
regional. See Regional pollutants
regulatory environment and, 386–387
revenue effect, 383–384
social costs due to car exhaust, 241
stock pollutants. See Stock pollutants
surface pollutants. See Surface pollutants
toxic substances. See Toxic substance pollution
uncertainty and policy instrument options,
387–388
water. See Water pollution
Pollution control
disclosure strategies, 595–596
Pollution havens, 545–546
Population
biases in population control, 578
children-related costs and, 580–582
degradation of environment due to growth
in, 575
demand and, 590
economic approach to controlling, 578–584
effects of economic development on, 576–578
effects on economic development, 568–574
environment and, 574
fall of civilizations and, 2
governmental policies in controlling,
582–584
mapping population data (GIS), 586
overview of population problem, 564–565
politics of population control, 579
successful population control approaches, 580
urbanization and, 584–586
U.S. growth, 565–568
world growth, 565
“Porter induced innovation hypothesis,” 546
Positive economic, vs. normative, 19
Positive feedback loops, 6, 574
Potential reserves, depletable resources, 119
Poverty
feeding the poor, 285–286
population growth and, 576
pressure on forests due to, 305–306
survival vs. sustainable use of land and, 248
Preferential use, restrictions on water
transfers, 215–216
Present value, benefit-cost analysis, 52–53
Preservation
vs. development, 56, 57
tropical forests and, 48
Prestige oil tanker spill, 475, 502
Pretreatment standards, water pollution, 494
Price controls
agriculture, 278
allocation of resources and, 142–143
ineffectiveness of, 594
natural gas, 142–146
Price elasticity of demand (oil), 147–148
Price volatility, pollution control and, 387
Priceless: On Knowing the Price of Everything and the
Value of Nothing (Ackerman and
Heinzerling), 95
Pricing methods
full cost pricing, 230
water resources, 225–230
Primary standard, pollution control, 398–400
Primary vs. secondary effects, in benefit
estimation, 57–58
Prior appropriation doctrine, water rights, 212–214
Private marginal cost, 25, 37, 39, 190, 468
Private sector, public/private partnership, 596
Privatization
aquaculture, 335
water systems, 232
Producer responsibility, for recycling, 195
659Subject Index
Producer surpluses
distribution of net benefits between consumers
and producers, 48–49
scarcity rent and, 24
Product charges, 388–389
Product safety, 516–517
Production process, consumer goods, 17
Profit maximization
compatibility with forest management, 315–316
perverse incentives in landowner exploitation
of forests, 301, 306
Project XL, 452
Property rights
allocation of resources and, 131–132
developing countries and, 246–249
efficient market allocations and, 23
establishing, 249
overview of, 22–23
perverse incentives in landowner exploitation
of forests, 303
trade and, 545
types of regimes, 28–31
water, 212
Property rules, allocation of entitlements via, 39–41
Property taxes, 243–245, 256–257
Proposition 65 (Safe Drinking Water and Toxic
Enforcement Act of 1986), 530
Prototype Carbon Fund (PCF), 434
Public goods
biological diversity as, 31–32
efficient provision of, 32–33
land use conversion and, 245–246
national security as, 152
The Nature Conservancy providing, 34
overview of, 31
Public infrastructure, land use and, 240–241
Public policies. See Policies
Public sector, public/private partnership, 596
Public transportation, European approach to, 455
Quotas
approaches to U.S. energy needs, 156
ITQs (Individual Transferable Quotas), 339–344
Rail system, European approach to, 455
Raw materials
environment providing, 17
forests providing, 293
subsidies on, 191–192
taxes for promoting recycling, 195
Real consumption per capita, 554
Real-resource costs, vs. transfer costs, 338
Rebates, electric conservation policies, 164
Receiving areas, TDR programs, 249
RECLAIM (Regional Clean Air Incentives
Market), 409–410
Reclamation Act (1902), 213
Reclamation projects, inefficiencies in water
allocation, 215–216
Recyclable resources
composition of demand effect and, 181
defined, 121
disposal costs, 180–182, 189–191
e-waste, 197–199
extraction costs, 180–182
market imperfections and, 188–189
market response to demand for recycling, 591
ore depletion, 183–184
overview of, 180
pollution damage and, 200–202
prevalence and costs of recycling, 182–183
public policies, 192–196
scarcity and, 184–185
scrap market and, 191
subsidies on raw materials and, 191–192
substitution impacting scarcity, 186–188
technological progress impacting scarcity, 186
Recycled materials, market, 197
Recycling surcharge, 193–195
REDD program (UN), 312–313
Refundable deposits, for promoting recycling, 193
Refuse Act (1899), 480
Regional Clean Air Incentives Market
(RECLAIM), 409–410
Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative
(RGGI), 384, 433
Regional pollutants, 360
acid rain. See Acid rain
overview of, 411–412
Regressive distribution, 383
Regulation
competition and, 546
mobile-source air pollution, 457
pollution control, 386–387
vs. self correction, 547
Regulatory takings, 244
Renewable energy credits, 165, 167
Renewable portfolio standard (RPS), 165
Renewable resources
660 Subject Index
allocating, 118–119
constant marginal cost, 138–139
defined, 122
hydroelectric power, 170–171
photovoltaics, 171
renewable substitutes, 125–127, 138–139
solar, 172
sustainability and, 544
TECs in transitioning to, 165
transitioning to, 170
wind, 171
Rent seeking
natural gas price controls as example of, 144
special interest groups and, 35–36
Replacement rates, population growth, 567
Reproductive system, health effects of toxic
substances, 510
Res nullius (open-access) regimes. See Open-access
resources
Reserves
Conservation Reserve Program (1985), 272, 482
current reserves of depletable resources, 119
forest protection, 309–311
marine protected areas, 345–347
SPR (Strategic Petroleum Reserve), 155, 156
Residuals, of production, 365
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 532
Resource endowment, 119
Resources
allocating depletable and renewable, 118–119
classifying depletable, 119–122
environmental costs of extraction, 132–134
exploration and technological progress and,
129–131
finiteness of, 590
food production. See Agriculture
hoarding, 6
intertemporal allocations, 123–124, 542
land. See Land
marginal extraction costs, 127–129
market allocations, 131
natural resource curse, 551–552
property rights in allocation of, 22–23,
131–132
scarcity rent and, 24
social reaction to scarcity, 2–3
timber. See Forests
transitioning to renewable substitutes, 125–127
two-period model for allocation of, 103–107