The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 1: Ancient Japan
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AUTHORITY CRISES 267
capital moved from Nara, where three strong empresses and two em-
perors of the Temmu line had reigned. Thus the move of Emperor
Kammu (a Tenji descendant) to Nagaoka in 784 marks the close of
Japan's amazing Nara period.
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
CHAPTER 5
JAPAN AND THE CONTINENT
Japan's prehistory was marked by the gradual transmission of tech-
niques and artifacts from the continental civilizations of Asia, espe-
cially China and Korea. Imported technology - the cultivation of rice
in paddy fields, and bronze and iron metallurgy - enabled the Japa-
nese to create a settled and stratified society, and diplomatic contact
with foreign governments contributed to the formation of the Japanese
state.
Thus continental influence in prehistoric times prepared the
way for the conscious adoption of sophisticated Chinese political and
cultural patterns in the sixth and seventh centuries. This chapter will
use archaeological findings and Chinese records to examine relations
between Japan and the continent, beginning with Japan's transition to
an agrarian society and ending with the dawn of the historical age.
Long before any other East Asian people, the Chinese developed the
building blocks of advanced civilization: agriculture, metal technol-
ogy, and a writing system. Archaeological findings in China suggest
that settled farming communities (such as the Yang-shao in the Yellow
River basin and the Ta-p'en-k'eng of the southeastern coast) can be
dated as early as the fifth millennium B.C.
1
The Shang state, which
rose in the Yellow River valley around 1750 B.C., was based on a
writing system and advanced bronze technology. About a thousand
years later, the Chinese began to make tools out of iron.
2
Their iron-
tipped plows enhanced agricultural productivity, and iron weapons
contributed to victory in war, most notably in the case of the Ch'in, the
state that formed China's first empire in
221
B.C.
Chinese culture and technology often came to Japan through Korea,
which adopted agriculture and metals somewhat before Japan did. By
the fourth century, the Koreans were growing
rice,
had passed through
a
bronze
age,
and were beginning
to
turn to iron for weapons and tools.3
1 Kwang-chih Chang, The Archaeology of
Aticienl
China, 3rd ed. revised and enlarged (New
Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1979), pp. 83-85.
2 Ibid., pp. 209-95, discusses the Shang state, and for the use of iron, see pp. 350-57.
3 Ki-baik Lee, A New History of Korea, trans. Edward M. Wagner with Edward J. Shultz
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard-Yenching Institute, 1984), pp. 9-12, 14-16.
268
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JOMON
AND YAYOI PERIODS 269
Some
of these developments began to spread into Japan in the fourth or
third century, but it was not until the sixth century
A.D.
that the Japa-
nese made extensive use of writing or attempted to form a centralized
state.
Archaeologists have established the following relative chronology
for the prehistoric cultures of Japan: first a Paleolithic culture, fol-
lowed by the hunting-and-gathering Jomon culture, the agrarian Yayoi
culture, and finally the Burial Mound culture, which takes its name
from the huge mounds that entombed its
leaders.
An absolute chronol-
ogy, however, remains a thorny problem. Archaeological findings can
establish few absolute dates, and scholars' estimates often vary by
several hundred
years.
In this chapter, estimates of
dates
will be based
on both archaeological and documentary evidence: carbon-14 dating,
datable items imported from China or Korea, and accounts of Japan in
Chinese histories. It is somewhat misleading, however, to refer to
prehistoric "periods" as if they began and ended in particular years.
For example, the rice cultivation that marked the beginning of Japan's
Yayoi culture flourished in southwestern Japan when the northeast
was still in the hunting-and-gathering stage. Therefore, although this
chapter will often refer to the Jomon or the Yayoi "periods," the
reader should keep in mind such qualifications.
JAPAN
AND THE
CONTINENT
IN THE
JOMON
AND
YAYOI
PERIODS
The narrow stretch of ocean between the southern tip of the Korean
peninsula and the northern coast of Kyushu was a natural passageway
for traffic between Japan and the continent in prehistoric times. Ar-
chaeological findings indicate that the peoples of Kyushu and Korea
were in contact some five thousand years ago. In addition, the oldest
traces of rice cultivation in Japan, along with tools of Korean origin,
have been found in northern Kyushu. Thus the sites in this region are
central to a study of prehistoric contacts between Japan and the conti-
nent. Evidence from northern Kyushu sites dating from the Jomon
period to the beginning of late Yayoi times will form the basis for the
first portion of this chapter.
Continental
influence
on the Jomon culture
Postwar archaeologists have determined that Japan was inhabited in
Paleolithic times, probably by people who crossed land bridges from
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
27O JAPAN AND THE CONTINENT
the continent
to
the islands. Tribal societies developed, based on
a
hunting-and-gathering economy and characterized by pottery deco-
rated with elaborate patterns,
as if
made with twisted cords. This
"cord-pattern" pottery gave the name Jomon to the culture that domi-
nated the Japanese islands until the fourth or third century B.C.
Findings at Jomon sites dating around 3000
B.C.
suggest that there
was some contact between the peoples of southern Korea and northern
Kyushu, Japan's southernmost island and the region closest
to
the
continent. Pottery found at the neolithic Chtilmun ("comb-pattern")
site
at
the Tongsam-dong shell mound
in
Pusan has been compared
with northern Kyushu's Sobata-style pottery,
an
early Jomon type.
Their shapes and markings are similar, and both types were made by
mixing asbestos and talc with the clay, leading some scholars to argue
that Sobata pottery was derived from
a
Korean prototype.
1
' Contact
between Korea and Japan continued throughout the Jomon age, and
pottery
of
middle and late Jomon types has also been discovered
at
Tongsam-dong. The absence
of
Korean pottery
at
middle and late
Jomon sites, however, indicates that Korean cultures exerted little
influence over Japan during these periods. In fact, the Jomon culture
seems
to
have evolved relatively independently, with little influence
from the continent.
This situation, however, changed dramatically
at
the end
of
the
Jomon age. For example, carbonized rice grains and stone implements
like those of Korea's Mumun (undecorated) pottery culture have been
unearthed
at
sites that also contain Yusu-style pottery,
a
late Jomon
type.
This indicates that rice growing had been transmitted from Ko-
rea,
a
conclusion substantiated by the discovery of argicultural tools
such as axes, knives, blades with handles, and polished arrowheads at
the late Jomon Nabatake site in Karatsu City, Saga Prefecture,
5
and at
Nijomachi Magarida in Itoshima District, Fukuoka Prefecture.
6
The Itazuke site
in
Fukuoka City
is
particularly important to the
study
of
the transition between the Jomon and the Yayoi cultures.
Itazuke, the site of a village located on
a
plateau bordering wet low-
lands,
contains remains from both the late Jomon and the early Yayoi
4 Kim Won-gy6ng, Han'guk kogohak kaesdl (Seoul: Ilchisa, 1973); Esaka Teruya, "Seihoku
Kyushu chiho no Jomon bunka to Chosen hanto nambu no senshi bunka," Kokogaku janaru
183 (1980): 12-14.
5 Investigated by the Karatsu City kyoiku iinkai. See Kagawa Mitsuo, "Sobata bunka ni tsuite,"
in Karatsu
wan
shuhen iseki chosa iinkai, Matsuro koku Saga-ken Karatsu-shi Higashi
Matsuura-gun no kokogakuteki
chosa
kenkyu,
2
vols. (Tokyo: Rokkaku shuppan, 1982), vol.
1,
pp.
71-75-
6 Investigated by the Fukuoka Prefecture kyoiku iinkai.
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
JOMON AND YAYOI PERIODS 271
periods, sometimes in the same stratum. The oldest evidence of rice
cultivation in Japan has been found at this site. Both late Jomon Yusu
pottery and pottery of the Itazuke I type, manufactured in the early
Yayoi period, are marked with imprints made by unhulled rice. Strata
containing only Yusu-style pottery - definitely from the late Jomon
period - also yield evidence of rice cultivation, including carbonized
rice grains and stone axes of Korean lineage that were probably used
for making wooden agricultural tools.
7
These findings indicate that
the people of the Yusu pottery culture practiced a fairly advanced
form of rice cultivation.
These discoveries raise an important question: How did the tech-
niques of rice growing come to Japan? Because there is no evidence of
rice cultivation at earlier Jomon sites, scholars believe that rice was not
grown in Japan until the late Jomon period.
8
But the Jomon people
had already begun to grow other crops, such as the root vegetables
they had once obtained by gathering.' Rice, however, does not grow
wild in the Japanese islands; thus it can be assumed that its cultivation
was introduced from abroad. The most likely source is the Yangtze
River basin of central China, where rice was grown in irrigated fields
in prehistoric times. How rice reached Japan from the Yangtze basin is
a subject of much debate, however. Some scholars argue that cultiva-
tion techniques were introduced directly from central China to both
Korea and Japan simultaneously, and others believe that such tech-
niques came from south China through the Ryukyu island chain and
the stepping-stone islands south of Kyushu. A third theory is espe-
cially convincing: that rice cultivation was first transmitted from the
Yangtze basin to the Shantung peninsula, then to Korea, and
finally
to
Japan.
10
Similarities in early agricultural technology, based on similarities in
topography and climate, suggest that rice growing may well have come
to Japan by way of Korea. Among the strongest evidence is the pres-
ence of Korean stone implements at the Itazuke site. Some could have
7 Mori Teijiro and Okazaki Takashi, "Itazuke iseki," in Nihon kokogaku kyokai, ed., Nihon
noko
bunka no seisei, 2 vols. (Tokyo: Tokyodo, 1960-61), vol. 1; Fukuoka-sbi kyoiku iinkai,
Itazuke iseki
chosa
gaikd: Itazuke
shuhen
iseki
chosa hokoku
sho 5, 1977-8
nendo:
Fukuoka-shi
maizd bunkazai
chosa hokoku
sho 49 (1979); Okazaki Takashi, "Kome o chushin toshite mita
Nihon to tairiku: Kokogakuteki chosa no gen dankai," in Kodai ni
okeru
kdeki to
bunka
kotyu,
vol. 13 of Ishimoda Sho et al., eds., Kodaishi koza (Tokyo: Gakuseisha, 1966), p. 209.
8 Kim Chdng-hak, Kankoku no
kokogaku
(Tokyo: Kawade shobo shinsha, 1972).
9 Okazaki Takashi, "Nihon kokogaku no hoho" in Hirano Kunio and Okazaki Takashi, eds.,
Kenkyu shityo, vol. 9 of Kodai
no
Nihon (Tokyo: Kadokawa shoten, 1971), p. 42.
10 Okazaki, "Kome o chushin toshite mita Nihon to tairiku," pp. 181-216. Also see Chapter 1
of this volume.
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
272 JAPAN AND THE CONTINENT
come directly from China, as implements of the same types have been
found in both China and Korea. But one type of tool, a grooved axe
with a square shaft, is peculiar to Korea. On the other hand, archaeolo-
gists have found no exclusively Chinese tools at northern Kyushu sites
dating from the end of the Jomon period. Thus it seem unlikely that
rice cultivation was introduced directly from China.
11
The variety of rice grown in Japan - first in northern Kyushu and,
later, all over the islands - also suggests that rice came to Japan from
the Korean peninsula. Japanese rice is of the short-grained variety
known as Oryza sativa
japonica.
Though both this variety and the
longer-grained indica rice were grown in the Yangtze basin, only
japonica is grown in Korea and Japan. Therefore, if rice had been
introduced directly from the Yangtze to Japan, some indica grains
might well have been found at Japanese sites, indicating that the type
was cultivated on at least an experimental basis.
12
Furthermore, rice
was grown early enough in Korea to have been transmitted to Japan in
late Jomon times. The oldest traces of rice cultivation in Korea have
been found at a Mumun site at Hunam village in Kyonggi Province in
west central Korea. Using radiocarbon dating, archaeologists have
determined that rice was grown in Korea as early as the first half of the
first millennium B.C.
13
The hypothesis that rice came to Japan by way
of Korea is also supported by other evidence of early contact between
the two people, such as similar mound-building techniques.
l
*
Early Yayoi:
agriculture
and the use of metal
The widespread adoption of rice cultivation distinguished the Yayoi
culture from the earlier Jomon and laid the foundation for a settled
society. That is, the growing of rice as the staple crop required people
to settle in permanent villages, where cooperative methods of planting,
irrigation, and harvesting evolved. The Yayoi rice-growing culture
spread rapidly from northern Kyushu to the region of central Honshu
around present-day Nagoya. There, climate and topography retarded
11 Okazaki Takashi, "Nihon ni okeru shoki inasaku shiryo: Chosen hanto to no kanren ni
furete," in Nishitani Tadashi ed., Kokogaku kara mita kodai Nihon to
Chosen
(Tokyo:
Gakuseisha, 1978), p. 103.
12 Okazaki, "Nihon ni okeru shoki inasaku shiryo," p. 102.
13 Kim Won-gy6ng, "Discoveries of Rice in Prehistoric Sites in Korea,"
Journal
of
Asian Studies
41 (May 1982): 515.
14 Matsuo Teisaku, Kila
Kyushu sMsekibo no kenkyu
(Saga: Matsuo Teisaku sensei kanreki kinen
jigyokai, 1957); Mori Teijiro, "Nihon ni okeru shoki no shisekibo" in Kim Che-w6n hakushi
koki kinen ronso henshu iinkai, ed., Kim Che-w6n hakushi koki kinen ronso (Seoul:
Ulyumunhwasa, 1969), pp. 60-67.
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
JOMON AND YAYOI PERIODS 273
the northward advance of agriculture, and for a time, northern Japan
remained a society of hunters and gatherers.
The introduction of metal technology from the continent enhanced
agricultural production, influenced methods of warfare, and helped
create a stratified society in which elites possessed metal implements,
weapons, and jewelry. Metal culture, like the growing of rice, was
introduced to Japan from Korea. Archaeological findings indicate
that by the third century B.C., the Koreans had created an advanced
metal culture. Iron and bronze weapons, agricultural tools, and dat-
able coins had been introduced from the northeastern Chinese state of
Yen. Bronze items from the Scytho-Siberian culture of the Eurasian
steppe - horse trappings, for example - have also been found at Ko-
rean sites.
15
The Koreans first learned techniques of casting iron and
bronze and, later, of forging iron, thus enabling them to manufacture
their own metal weapons and tools. Some of these items were intro-
duced into northern Kyushu.
16
Northern Kyushu's proximity to the Asian continent allowed the
Japanese to circumvent the stages through which a metal culture typi-
cally evolves. In China, for example, a sophisticated bronze culture
developed in the Shang dynasty, producing weapons and intricately
decorated vessels. The use of iron came next: Cast iron was first used
in the seventh or sixth century B.C., and then forged iron took prece-
dence in the Warring States period (ca. 403-221 B.C.).'? The Japanese,
on the other hand, may have begun with forged iron items imported
from Korea.
18
The use of bronze seems to have come later, and the
Japanese did not go through a cast-iron stage. Findings at early Yayoi
sites in Kyushu include items made of forged iron, but bronzes do not
appear until the end of the period.
Iron implements may even have come to Japan as early as the late
Jomon age. The tip of a forged-iron blade has been discovered at
Saitoyama, Kumamoto Prefecture, in a shell mound that contained
both late Jomon Yusu and early Yayoi Itazuke I-style pottery. The
blade appears to be that of an axe with a socket for the insertion of
a
wooden handle, and it was probably manufactured in China or Ko-
rea.
19
Other findings that point to the early use of iron include frag-
15 Oda Fujio, "Tekki," in Tateiwa iseki chosa iinkai, ed., Tateiwa
iseki
(Tokyo: Kawade shobd,
1977).
P- 240; William E. Henthorn, A History of Korea (New York: Free Press, 1974), pp.
15-16.
16 Mori Koichi, "Kokogaku kara mita tetsu," in Mori Koichi, ed., Tetsu (Tokyo: Shakai
shisosha, 1974), pp. 21-22.
17 Oda, "Tekki," p. 240. 18 Ibid.
19 Ibid.; Mori, "Kokogaku kara mita tetsu," pp.
20-21.
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
274 JAPAN AND THE CONTINENT
ments of daggers found at two early Yayoi sites, one in Kumamoto and
one in Yamaguchi Prefecture.
20
Iron articles imported from Korea
during the Yayoi period included weapons such as halberds, swords,
spears, daggers, and arrowheads and tools such as axes and knives.
For the most part, these items were best suited to everyday use, in
warfare or in farming, as were the iron implements made later in
Japan.
Bronzes were first imported from Korea at the end of the early Yayoi
period. Imported bronzes - including swords, spears, mirrors, and
bracelets - have been found at a number of burial sites in northern
Kyushu. At the Ukikunden site in Karatsu City, Saga Prefecture,
archaeologists found a burial ground where bodies were interred with
bronzes in large urns, a common Yayoi practice. Furthermore, the
bronzes found at this site resemble those cast in Mumun Korea. Such
items include swords, spears, and mirrors incised on the back with
patterns of fine lines and with two or more knob handles.
21
Bronzes of
this type, discovered at early Yayoi sites in Fukuoka and Saga prefec-
tures,
suggest close and continuing contacts between Korea and north-
ern Kyushu. Discoveries at some dozens of sites in western Japan
(Tsushima Island and Saga, Fukuoka, Kumamoto, Yamaguchi, and
Shimane prefectures) have also yielded pottery in the Korean Mumun
style,
along with native Japanese Yayoi period ware, leading some
scholars to believe that Koreans had immigrated to Japan and had set
up household there.
22
Middle
Yayoi
Japan's close relations with Korea continued throughout the middle
Yayoi years. Sites at Okamoto-cho in Kasuga City, Fukuoka Prefec-
ture,
and Yasunagata in Tosu City, Saga Prefecture, have yielded a
number of bronze swords and spears of Korean origin.
2
* Such items,
along with the techniques to produce them locally, were transmitted
eastward, enabling people as far east as the Kinai District of central
Honshu to cast their own bronze implements. Conspicuous among the
Kinai bronzes were bells
(dotaku)
patterned after Korean horse trap-
20 Mori, "Kokogaku kara mita tetsu," pp.
20-21.
See also Chapter 1 of this volume.
21 Investigations were conducted in 1957, 1965, and 1966. See Kondo Kyoichi, "Doken, dobo,
doka," in Matsuro koku, 1.398-409.
22 Goto Naoshi, "Chosenkei mumon doki," in Mikami Tsugio hakushi shoju kinen ronbunshu
henshu iinkai, Mikami
Tsugio hakushi shoju kinen
ronbunshu:
Toyoski kokogaku ronshu
(Tokyo:
Hoyu shoten, 1979).
23 Investigated by the Tosu City kyoiku iinkai.
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
JOMON AND YAYOI PERIODS 275
pings but much larger in size. These were probably ceremonial items
buried in village agricultural rites.
Yayoi culture was profoundly affected by changes on the Asian
continent: the establishment in 206 B.C. of the Former Han dynasty,
China's first stable and enduring empire, and the Chinese invasion of
Korea less than a century later. In 109-108 B.C., armies of the Han
emperor Wu-ti invaded the Wiman Choson kingdom, centered in the
present P'yongyang region, and established four military garrisons in
northern Korea.
24
The administrative center was the capital of
the
Lo-
lang colony, located in the vicinity of the old Choson capital. Archaeo-
logical remains of Lo-lang dating from the Former Han, Later Han,
and Wei dynasties have been found across the Taedong River from
P'yongyang. These remains, including grave sites and remnants of the
earth ramparts that once surrounded the city,
2
* indicate that the in-
habitants of Lo-lang - many of whom were Chinese immigrants or
their descendants - wrote with Chinese characters, built Chinese-style
roofed buildings, and used implements made of iron. In short, the
urban culture of China had been transmitted to northwestern Korea.
Through Lo-lang and another outpost established later at Tai-fang
near present-day Seoul, the Chinese established contacts with the
Yayoi people. The first description of Japan in written history appears
in the Han
shu,
a Chinese history completed by Pan Ku in about A.D.
82.
According to this account, the "Wa" people living on islands in the
ocean near Lo-lang "are divided into one hundred countries. Each
year envoys from the Wa bring tribute [to Lo-lang]."
26
More details
about the Wa can be found in the Wei chih, compiled in the third
century.
27
This account, which will be examined in detail later in this
chapter, includes a lengthy description of
a
Chinese delegation's visit
to Wa. The report of this and other missions are substantiated by
archaeological findings at northern Kyushu sites, several of which
correspond to the Wa "countries" cited in the
Wei
chih.
Northern Kyushu sites of the middle Yayoi period contained
bronzes of Chinese manufacture, transmitted through Lo-lang.
28
It
24 Lee, A New History of Korea, pp. 19-20.
25 Sekino Tadashi, Heijo fukin ni okeru Rakuro jidai no funbo, Chosen Sotoku-fu koseki chosa
tokubetsu hokoku 1 (Seoul: Chosen Sotoku-fu, 1919); Sekino Tadashi, Rakuro jidai no iseki,
Chosen
Sotoku-fu koseki chosa
tokubetsu hokoku
4 (2 vols.) (Seoul: Chosen Sotoku-fu, 1927).
26 Pan Ku, Han
shu
(Peking: Chung-hua Shu-chu, 1964), vol. 28B, p. 1658.
27 Ch'en Shou yu, San-kuo
chih
(Peking: Chung-hua shu-chu, 1959), vol. 30, pp. 854-58, trans.
Ryusaku Tsunoda and L. Carrington Goodrich, Japan in
the Chinese Dynastic Histories
(South
Pasadena,
Calif.:
P. D. and lone Perkins, 1951), pp. 8-20.
28 Komai Kazuchika, Rakuro
gunchi
shi (Tokyo: Tokyo daigaku bungakubu kokogaku kenkyu-
shitsu, 1965).
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
276 JAPAN AND THE CONTINENT
seems likely that Japanese delegations visited Lo-lang and returned
with these items, including mirrors that date from Former Han. These
mirrors seem to have been especially prized by the Japanese, who
often placed them in large burial urns. The discovery of datable Chi-
nese mirrors adds precision to the dating of Japanese sites and allows
us to define the middle Yayoi period as the first century B.C. and the
early part of the first century A.D.
Important middle Yayoi burial-urn sites in northern Kyushu in-
clude (1) Omagari (Higashi Seburi village, Kanzaki District, Saga
Prefecture), which contained a bronze mirror from the late Former
Han;
2
' (2) Mine (Futsukaichi, Fukuoka Prefecture), where a narrow
bronze sword and a mirror dating from the middle of the Former Han
were found in 1857; (3) Higashi Oda Mine (Yasu, Asakura District,
Fukuoka Prefecture), where a mirror from the late Former Han and a
bronze sword were found in 192953° and (4) Kashiwazaki Tajima
(Karatsu, Saga Prefecture^
1
(thought to correspond to Matsuro, one
of the Wa "countries" visited by the third-century Chinese delega-
tion),
which yielded a Former Han bronze mirror.
These abundant findings make several other northern Kyushu sites
particularly important to a study of connections between Japan and
the continent. For example, when the Mikumo site (Maebara, Ito-
shima District, Fukuoka Prefecture) was first discovered in 1822, it
produced a number of items of continental origin, along with a Yayoi
burial urn. According to reports written at the time, these findings
included Korean-style bronze swords, spears, halberds, glass beads,
and thirty-five Former Han bronze mirrors of various sizes, all but two
dating from the dynasty's later years.& All of the mirrors except one,
however, have been lost. The site was rediscovered in 1974, but the
Yayoi urn had been removed. Similar articles were found, however, in
another burial urn nearby. These included twelve glass and one jadeite
magatama
(comma-shaped ritual jewels) and ten mirrors, nine from
the late Former Han and one from the dynasty's middle years. An-
other important middle Yayoi site is at Sugu Okamoto (Kasuga City,
Fukuoka Prefecture), thought to correspond to the country of Na
29 Saga-ken kyoiku iinkai, Fulazukayama: Saga tobu chukaku kogyo danchi
kensetsu
ni
tonumau
mated bunkazai hakkutsu chosa
hokokusho:
Saga-ken bunkazm
chosa hokokusho
no. 46 (1979).
30 Nakayama Heijiro, "Kurisugata tekken oyobi zenkanshiki kyo no shinshiryo," Kokogaku
zasshi 17(1927): 1-18.
31 Saga-ken kyoiku iinkai, Kashiwazaki isekigun: Saga-ken bunkazai chosa
hokokusho,
No. 53
(1979)-
32 Aoyagi Tanenobu and Kashima Kyuheita, Ryuen koki ryakuko, hoko no ki (Tokyo: Bunken
shuppan, 1976); Fukuoka-ken kyoiku iinkai, Ihara Mikumo
iseki hakkutsu chosa
gaiho:
Shotva
49 nendo (Fukuoka: Fukuoka-ken kyoiki iinkai, 1975).
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