Tanenbaum A. Computer Networks
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2. Break the following columnar transposition cipher. The plaintext is taken from a popular
computer textbook, so ''computer'' is a probable word. The plaintext consists entirely of
letters (no spaces). The ciphertext is broken up into blocks of five characters for
readability.
aauan cvlre rurnn dltme aeepb ytust iceat npmey iicgo gorch srsoc
nntii imiha oofpa gsivt tpsit lbolr otoex
3. Find a 77-bit one-time pad that generates the text ''Donald Duck'' from the ciphertext
of
Fig. 8-4.
4. Quantum cryptography requires having a photon gun that can, on demand, fire a single
photon carrying 1 bit. In this problem, calculate how many photons a bit carries on a
100-Gbps fiber link. Assume that the length of a photon is equal to its wavelength,
which for purposes of this problem, is 1 micron. The speed of light in fiber is 20
cm/nsec.
5. If Trudy captures and regenerates photons when quantum cryptography is in use, she
will get some of them wrong and cause errors to appear in Bob's one-time pad. What
fraction of Bob's one-time pad bits will be in error, on average?
6. A fundamental cryptographic principle states that all messages must have redundancy.
But we also know that redundancy helps an intruder tell if a guessed key is correct.
Consider two forms of redundancy. First, the initial
n bits of the plaintext contain a
known pattern. Second, the final
n bits of the message contain a hash over the
message. From a security point of view, are these two equivalent? Discuss your answer.
7. In
Fig. 8-6, the P-boxes and S-boxes alternate. Although this arrangement is
esthetically pleasing, is it any more secure than first having all the P-boxes and then all
the S-boxes?
8. Design an attack on DES based on the knowledge that the plaintext consists exclusively
of upper case ASCII letters, plus space, comma, period, semicolon, carriage return, and
line feed. Nothing is known about the plaintext parity bits.
9. In the text we computed that a cipher-breaking machine with a billion processors that
could analyze a key in 1 picosecond would take only 10
10
years to break the 128-bit
version of AES. However, current machines might have 1024 processors and take 1
msec to analyze a key, so we need a factor of 10
15
improvement in performance just to
obtain the AES-breaking machine. If Moore's law (computing power doubles every 18
months) continues to hold, how many years will it take to even build the machine?
10. AES supports a 256-bit key. How many keys does AES-256 have? See if you can find
some number in physics, chemistry, or astronomy of about the same size. Use the
Internet to help search for big numbers. Draw a conclusion from your research.
11. Suppose that a message has been encrypted using DES in ciphertext block chaining
mode. One bit of ciphertext in block
C
i
is accidentally transformed from a 0 to a 1
during transmission. How much plaintext will be garbled as a result?
12. Now consider ciphertext block chaining again. Instead of a single 0 bit being
transformed into a 1 bit, an extra 0 bit is inserted into the ciphertext stream after block
C
i
. How much plaintext will be garbled as a result?
13. Compare cipher block chaining with cipher feedback mode in terms of the number of
encryption operations needed to transmit a large file. Which one is more efficient and
by how much?
14. Using the RSA public key cryptosystem, with
a = 1, b = 2, etc.,
a. If
p = 7 and q = 11, list five legal values for d.
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b. If p = 13, q = 31, and d = 7, find e.
c. Using
p = 5, q = 11, and d = 27, find e and encrypt ''abcdefghij''.
15. Suppose a user, Maria, discovers that her private RSA key (
d 1, n 1) is same as the
public RSA key (
e 2, n 2) of another user, Frances. In other words, d 1 = e 2 and n 1 =
n 2. Should Maria consider changing her public and private keys? Explain your answer.
16. Consider the use of counter mode, as shown in
Fig. 8-15, but with IV = 0. Does the use
of 0 threaten the security of the cipher in general?
17. The signature protocol of
Fig. 8-18 has the following weakness. If Bob crashes, he may
lose the contents of his RAM. What problems does this cause and what can he do to
prevent them?
18. In
Fig. 8-20, we see how Alice can send Bob a signed message. If Trudy replaces P, Bob
can detect it. But what happens if Trudy replaces both
P and the signature?
19. Digital signatures have a potential weakness due to lazy users. In e-commerce
transactions, a contract might be drawn up and the user asked to sign its SHA-1 hash.
If the user does not actually verify that the contract and hash correspond, the user may
inadvertently sign a different contract. Suppose that the Mafia try to exploit this
weakness to make some money. They set up a pay Web site (e.g., pornography,
gambling, etc.) and ask new customers for a credit card number. Then they send over a
contract saying that the customer wishes to use their service and pay by credit card
and ask the customer to sign it, knowing that most of them will just sign without
verifying that the contract and hash agree. Show how the Mafia can buy diamonds from
a legitimate Internet jeweler and charge them to unsuspecting customers.
20. A math class has 20 students. What is the probability that at least two students have
the same birthday? Assume that nobody was born on leap day, so there are 365
possible birthdays.
21. After Ellen confessed to Marilyn about tricking her in the matter of Tom's tenure,
Marilyn resolved to avoid this problem by dictating the contents of future messages into
a dictating machine and having her new secretary just type them in. Marilyn then
planned to examine the messages on her terminal after they had been typed in to make
sure they contained her exact words. Can the new secretary still use the birthday attack
to falsify a message, and if so, how?
Hint: She can.
22. Consider the failed attempt of Alice to get Bob's public key in
Fig. 8-23. Suppose that
Bob and Alice already share a secret key, but Alice still wants Bob's public key. Is there
now a way to get it securely? If so, how?
23. Alice wants to communicate with Bob, using public-key cryptography. She establishes a
connection to someone she hopes is Bob. She asks him for his public key and he sends
it to her in plaintext along with an X.509 certificate signed by the root CA. Alice already
has the public key of the root CA. What steps does Alice carry out to verify that she is
talking to Bob? Assume that Bob does not care who he is talking to (e.g., Bob is some
kind of public service).
24. Suppose that a system uses PKI based on a tree-structured hierarchy of CAs. Alice
wants to communicate with Bob, and receives a certificate from Bob signed by a CA
X
after establishing a communication channel with Bob. Suppose Alice has never heard of
X. What steps does Alice take to verify that she is talking to Bob?
25. Can IPsec using AH be used in transport mode if one of the machines is behind a NAT
box? Explain your answer.
26. Give one advantage of HMACs over using RSA to sign SHA-1 hashes.
27. Give one reason why a firewall might be configured to inspect incoming traffic. Give one
reason why it might be configured to inspect outgoing traffic. Do you think the
inspections are likely to be successful?
28. The WEP packet format is shown in
Fig. 8-31. Suppose that the checksum is 32 bits,
computed by XORing all the 32-bit words in the payload together. Also suppose that the
problems with RC4 are corrected by replacing it with a stream cipher having no
weaknesses and that IV's are extended to 128 bits. Is there any way for an intruder to
spy on or interfere with traffic without being detected?
29. Suppose an organization uses VPN to securely connect its sites over the Internet. Is
there a need for a user, Jim, in this organization to use encryption or any other security
mechanism to communicate with another user Mary in the organization.
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30. Change one message in protocol of Fig. 8-34 in a minor way to make it resistant to the
reflection attack. Explain why your change works.
31. The Diffie-Hellman key exchange is being used to establish a secret key between Alice
and Bob. Alice sends Bob (719, 3, 191). Bob responds with (543). Alice's secret
number,
x, is 16. What is the secret key?
32. If Alice and Bob have never met, share no secrets, and have no certificates, they can
nevertheless establish a shared secret key using the Diffie-Hellman algorithm. Explain
why it is very hard to defend against a man-in-the-middle attack.
33. In the protocol of
Fig. 8-39, why is A sent in plaintext along with the encrypted session
key?
34. In the protocol of Fig. 8-39, we pointed out that starting each plaintext message
with 32 zero bits is a security risk. Suppose that each message begins with a per-user
random number, effectively a second secret key known only to its user and the KDC.
Does this eliminate the known plaintext attack? Why?
34. In the Needham-Schroeder protocol, Alice generates two challenges,
R
A
and R
A2
. This
seems like overkill. Would one not have done the job?
35. Suppose an organization uses Kerberos for authentication. In terms of security and
service availability, what is the effect if AS or TGS goes down?
36. In the public-key authentication protocol of
Fig. 8-43, in message 7, R
B
is encrypted
with
K
S
. Is this encryption necessary, or would it have been adequate to send it back in
plaintext? Explain your answer.
37. Point-of-sale terminals that use magnetic-stripe cards and PIN codes have a fatal flaw:
a malicious merchant can modify his card reader to capture and store all the
information on the card as well as the PIN code in order to post additional (fake)
transactions in the future. The next generation of point-of-sale terminals will use cards
with a complete CPU, keyboard, and tiny display on the card. Devise a protocol for this
system that malicious merchants cannot break.
38. Give
two reasons why PGP compresses messages.
39. Assuming that everyone on the Internet used PGP, could a PGP message be sent to an
arbitrary Internet address and be decoded correctly by all concerned? Discuss your
answer.
40. The attack shown in
Fig. 8-47 leaves out one step. The step is not needed for the spoof
to work, but including it might reduce potential suspicion after the fact. What is the
missing step?
41. It has been proposed to foil DNS spoofing using ID prediction by having the server put
in a random ID rather than using a counter. Discuss the security aspects of this
approach.
42. The SSL data transport protocol involves two nonces as well as a premaster key. What
value, if any, does using the nonces have?
43. The image of
Fig. 8-55(b) contains the ASCII text of five plays by Shakespeare. Would
it be possible to hide music among the zebras instead of text? If so, how would it work
and how much could you hide in this picture? If not, why not?
44. Alice was a heavy user of a type 1 anonymous remailer. She would post many
messages to her favorite newsgroup,
alt.fanclub.alice, and everyone would know they
all came from Alice because they all bore the same pseudonym. Assuming that the
remailer worked correctly, Trudy could not impersonate Alice. After type 1 remailers
werer all shut down, Alice switched to a cypherpunk remailer and started a new thread
in her newsgroup. Devise a way for her to prevent Trudy from posting new messages to
the newsgroup, impersonating Alice.
45. Search the Internet for an interesting case involving privacy and write a 1-page report
on it.
46. Search the Internet for some court case involving copyright versus fair use and write a
1-page report summarizing your findings.
47. Write a program that encrypts its input by XORing it with a keystream. Find or write as
good a random number generator as you can to generate the keystream. The program
should act as a filter, taking plaintext on standard input and producing ciphertext on
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standard output (and vice versa). The program should take one parameter, the key that
seeds the random number generator.
48. Write a procedure that computes the SHA-1 hash of a block of data. The procedure
should have two parameters: a pointer to the input buffer and a pointer to a 20-byte
output buffer. To see the exact specification of SHA-1, search the Internet for FIPS 180-
1, which is the full specification.
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Chapter 9. Reading List and Bibliography
We have now finished our study of computer networks, but this is only the beginning. Many
interesting topics have not been treated in as much detail as they deserve, and others have
been omitted altogether for lack of space. In this chapter we provide some suggestions for
further reading and a bibliography, for the benefit of readers who wish to continue their study
of computer networks.
9.1 Suggestions for Further Reading
There is an extensive literature on all aspects of computer networks. Three journals that
frequently publish papers in this area are
IEEE Transactions on Communications, IEEE Journal
on Selected Areas in Communications
, and Computer Communication Review. Many other
journals also publish occasional papers on the subject.
IEEE also publishes three magazines—
IEEE Internet Computing, IEEE Network Magazine, and
IEEE Communications Magazine—that contain surveys, tutorials, and case studies on
networking. The first two emphasize architecture, standards, and software, and the last tends
toward communications technology (fiber optics, satellites, and so on).
In addition, there are a number of annual or biannual conferences that attract numerous
papers on networks and distributed systems, in particular,
SIGCOMM Annual Conference, The
International Conference on Distributed Computer Systems
. and The Symposium on Operating
Systems Principles
,
Below we list some suggestions for supplementary reading, keyed to the chapters of this book.
Most of these are tutorials or surveys on the subject. A few are chapters from textbooks.
9.1.1 Introduction and General Works
Bi et al., "Wireless Mobile Communications at the Start of the 21st Century"
A new century, a new technology. Sounds good. After some history of wireless, the major
topics are covered here, including standards, applications, Internet, and technologies.
Comer,
The Internet Book
Anyone looking for an easy-going introduction to the Internet should look here. Comer
describes the history, growth, technology, protocols, and services of the Internet in terms that
novices can understand, but so much material is covered that the book is also of interest to
more technical readers.
Garber, "Will 3G Really Be the Next Big Wireless Technology?"
Third-generation mobile phones are supposed to combine voice and data and provide data
rates up to 2 Mbps. They have been slow to take off. The promises, pitfalls, technology,
politics, and economics of using broadband wireless communication are all covered in this
easy-to-read article.
IEEE Internet Computing, Jan.-Feb. 2000
The first issue of
IEEE Internet Computing in the new millennium did exactly what you would
expect: ask the people who helped create the Internet in the previous millennium to speculate
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on where it is going in the next one. The experts are Paul Baran, Lawrence Roberts, Leonard
Kleinrock, Stephen Crocker, Danny Cohen, Bob Metcalfe, Bill Gates, Bill Joy, and others. For
best results, wait 500 years,
then read their predictions.
Kipnis, "Beating the System: Abuses of the Standards Adoption Process"
Standards committees try to be fair and vendor neutral in their work, but unfortunately there
are companies that try to abuse the system. For example, it has happened repeatedly that a
company helps develop a standard and after it is approved, announces that the standard is
based on a patent it owns and which it will license to companies that it likes and not to
companies that it does not like, and at prices that it alone determines. For a look at the dark
side of standardization, this article is an excellent start.
Kyas and Crawford,
ATM Networks
ATM was once touted as the networking protocol of the future, and is still important within the
telephone system. This book is an up-to-date guide to ATM's current status, with detailed
information on ATM protocols and how they can integrate with IP-based networks.
Kwok, "A Vision for Residential Broadband Service"
If you want to know what Microsoft thought about delivering video on demand in 1995, read
this article. Five years later the vision was hopelessly obsolete. The value of the article is to
demonstrate that even highly-knowledgeable and well-motivated people cannot see even five
years into the future with any accuracy at all. It should be a lesson for all of us.
Naughton,
A Brief History of the Future
Who invented the Internet, anyway? Many people have claimed credit. And rightly so, since
many people had a hand in it, in different ways. This history of the Internet tells how it all
happened, and in a witty and charming way, replete with anecdotes, such as AT&T's
repeatedly making clear its belief that digital communication had no future.
Perkins, "Mobile Networking in the Internet"
For a good overview of mobile networking protocol layer by protocol layer, this is the place to
look. The physical through transport layers are covered, as well as middleware, security, and
ad hoc networking.
Teger and Waks,"End-User Perspectives on Home Networking"
Home networks are not like corporate networks. The applications are different (more
multimedia intensive), the equipment comes from a wider range of suppliers, and the users
have little technical training and no patience whatsoever for any failures. To find out more,
look here.
Varshney and Vetter, "Emerging Mobile and Wireless Networks"
Another introduction to wireless communication. It covers wireless LANs, wireless local loops,
and satellites, as well as some of the software and applications.
Wetteroth,
OSI Reference Model for Telecommunications
Though the OSI protocols themselves are not used any more, the seven-layer model has
become very well-known. As well as explaining more about OSI, this book applies the model to
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telecom (as opposed to computer) networks, showing where common telephony and other
voice protocols fit into the networking stack.
9.1.2 The Physical Layer
Abramson, "Internet Access Using VSATs"
Small earth stations are becoming more popular for both rural telephony and corporate
Internet access in developed countries. However, the nature of the traffic for these two cases
differs dramatically, so different protocols are needed to handle the two cases. In this article,
the inventor of the ALOHA system discusses numerous channel allocation methods that can be
used for VSAT systems.
Alkhatib et al., "Wireless Data Networks: Reaching the Extra Mile"
For a quick introduction to wireless networking terms and technologies, including spread
spectrum, this tutorial paper is a good starting place.
Azzam and Ransom,
Broadband Access Technologies
The telephone system, fiber, ADSL, cable networks, satellites, even power lines are covered
here as network access technologies. Other topics include home networks, services, network
performance, and standards. The book concludes with biographies of the major companies in
the telecom and network business, but with the rate of change in the industry, this chapter
may have a shorter shelf life than the technology chapters.
Bellamy,
Digital Telephony
Everything you ever wanted to know about the telephone system and more is contained in this
authoritative book. Particularly interesting are the chapters on transmission and multiplexing,
digital switching, fiber optics, mobile telephony, and DSL.
Berezdivin et al., "Next-Generation Wireless Communications Concepts and Technologies"
These folks are one step ahead of everyone else. The "next generation" in the title refers to
fourth-generation wireless networks. These networks are expected to provide IP service
everywhere with seamless connectivity to the Internet with high bandwidth and excellent
quality of service. These goals are to be achieved through smart spectrum usage, dynamic
resource management, and adaptive service. All this sounds visionary now, but mobile
telephones sounded pretty visionary back in 1995.
Dutta-Roy, "An Overview of Cable Modem Technology and Market Perspectives"
Cable TV has gone from simple CATV to a complex distribution system for TV, Internet, and
telephony. These changes have affected the cable infrastructure considerably. For a discussion
of cable plant, standards, and marketing, with an emphasis on DOCSIS, this article is worth
reading.
Farserotu and Prasad, "A Survey of Future Broadband Multimedia Satellite Systems, Issues,
and Trends"
A variety of data communication satellites are in the sky or on the drawing board, including
Astrolink, Cyberstar, Spaceway, Skybridge, Teledesic, and iSky. They use various techniques
including bent pipe and satellite switching. For an overview of different satellite systems and
techniques, this paper is a good starting place.
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Hu and Li, "Satellite-Based Internet: A Tutorial"
Internet access via satellite is different from access via terrestrial lines. Not only is there the
issue of delay, but routing and switching are also different. In this paper, the authors examine
some of the issues related to using satellites for Internet access.
Joel, "Telecommunications and the IEEE Communications Society"
For a compact, but surprisingly comprehensive, history of telecommunications, starting with
the telegraph and ending with 802.11, this article is the place to look. It also covers radio,
telephones, analog and digital switching, submarine cables, digital transmission, ATM,
television broadcasting, satellites, cable TV, optical communications, mobile phones, packet
switching, the ARPANET, and the Internet.
Metcalfe, "Computer/Network Interface Design: Lessons from Arpanet & Ethernet"
Although engineers have been building network interfaces for decades now, one often wonders
if they have learned anything from all this experience. In this paper, the designer of the
Ethernet tells how to build a network interface and what to do with it once you have built it. He
pulls no punches, telling what he did wrong as well as what he did right.
Palais,
Fiber Optic Communication, 3rd ed.
Books on fiber optic technology tend to be aimed at the specialist, but this one is more
accessible than most. It covers waveguides, light sources, light detectors, couplers,
modulation, noise, and many other topics.
Pandya, "Emerging Mobile and Personal Communications Systems"
For a short and sweet introduction to hand-held personal communication systems, this article
is worth looking at. One of the nine pages contains a list of 70 acronyms used on the other
eight pages.
Sarikaya, "Packet Mode in Wireless Networks: Overview of Transition to Third Generation"
The whole idea of third-generation cellular networks is wireless data transmission. To get an
overview of how second-generation networks handle data and what the evolution to third
generation will be, this is a good place to look. Topics covered include GPRS, IS-95B, WCDMA,
and CDMA2000.
9.1.3 The Data Link Layer
Carlson, PPP Design, Implementation and Debugging, 2nd ed.
If you are interested in detailed information on all the protocols that make up the PPP suite,
including CCP (compression) and ECP (encryption), this book is a good reference. There is a
particular focus on ANU PPP-2.3, a popular implementation of PPP.
Gravano,
Introduction to Error Control Codes
Errors creep into nearly all digital communications, and many types of codes have been
developed to detect and correct for them. This book explains some of the most important,
from simple linear Hamming codes to more complex Galois fields and convolutional codes. It
tries to do so with the minimum algebra necessary, but that is still a lot.
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Holzmann, Design and Validation of Computer Protocols
Readers interested in the more formal aspects of data link (and similar) protocols should look
here. The specification, modeling, correctness, and testing of such protocols are all covered in
this book.
Peterson and Davie,
Computer Networks: A Systems Approach
Chapter 2 contains material about many data link issues, including framing, error detection,
stop-and-wait protocols, sliding window protocols, and IEEE 802 LANs.
Stallings,
Data and Computer Communications
Chapter 7 deals with the data link layer and covers flow control, error detection, and the basic
data link protocols, including stop-and-wait and go back n. The HDLC-type protocols are also
covered.
9.1.4 The Medium Access Control Sublayer
Bhagwat, "Bluetooth: Technology for Short-Range Wireless Apps"
For a straightforward introduction to the Bluetooth system, this is a good place to start. The
core protocols and profiles, radio, piconets, and links are discussed, followed by an
introduction to the various protocols.
Bisdikian, "An Overview of the Bluetooth Wireless Technology"
Like the Bhagwat paper (above), this is also a good starting point for learning more about the
Bluetooth system. The piconets, the protocol stack, and the profiles are all discussed, among
other topics.
Crow et al., "IEEE 802.11 Wireless Local Area Networks"
For a simple introduction to the technology and protocols of 802.11, this is a good place to
start. The emphasis is on the MAC sublayer. Both distributed control and centralized control
are covered. The paper concludes with some simulation studies of the performance of 802.11
under various conditions.
Eklund et al., "IEEE Standard 802.16: A Technical Overview of the Wireless MAN Air Interface
for Broadband Wireless Access"
The wireless local loop standardized by IEEE in 2002 as 802.16 may revolutionize telephone
service, bringing broadband to the home. In this overview, the authors explain the main
technological issues relating to this standard.
Kapp, "802.11: Leaving the Wire Behind"
This short introduction to 802.11 covers the basics, protocols, and relevant standards.
Kleinrock, "On Some Principles of Nomadic Computing and Multi-Access Communications"
Wireless access over a shared channel is more complex than having wired stations share a
channel. Among other issues are dynamic topologies, routing, and power management. These
and other issues related to channel access by mobile wireless devices are covered in this
article.
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Miller and Cummins, LAN Technologies Explained
Need to know more about the technologies that can be used in a LAN? This book covers most
of them, including FDDI and token ring as well as the everpopular Ethernet. While new
installations of the first two are now rare, many existing networks still use them, and ring
networks are still common (e.g., SONET).
Perlman,
Interconnections, 2nd ed.
For an authoritative, but entertaining, treatment of bridges, routers, and routing in general,
Perlman's book is the place to look. The author designed the algorithms used in the IEEE 802
spanning tree bridge and is one of the world's leading authorities on various aspects of
networking.
Webb, "Broadband Fixed Wireless Access"
Both the "why" and the "how" of fixed broadband wireless are examined in this paper. The
"why" section argues that people do not want a home e-mail address, a work e-mail address,
separate telephone numbers for home, work, and mobile, an instant messaging account, and
perhaps a fax number or two. They want a single integrated system that works everywhere.
The emphasis in the technology section is on the physical layer, including topics such as TDD
versus FDD, adaptive versus fixed modulation, and number of carriers.
9.1.5 The Network Layer
Bhatti and Crowcroft, "QoS Sensitive Flows: Issues in IP Packet Handling"
One of the ways to achieve better quality of service in a network is to schedule packet
departures from each router carefully. In this paper, a variety of packet scheduling algorithms,
as well as related issues, are discussed in some detail.
Chakrabarti, "QoS Issues in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks"
Routing in ad hoc networks of notebook computers that just happen to be near each other is
hard enough without having to worry about quality of service as well. Nevertheless, people do
care about quality of service, so attention needs to be paid to this topic. The nature of ad hoc
networks and some of the issues related to routing and quality of service are discussed in this
article.
Comer,
Internetworking with TCP/IP, Vol. 1, 4th ed.
Comer has written the definitive work on the TCP/IP protocol suite. Chapters 4 through 11 deal
with IP and related protocols in the network layer. The other chapters deal primarily with the
higher layers and are also worth reading.
Huitema,
Routing in the Internet
If you want to know everything there is to know about routing in the Internet, this is the book
for you. Both pronounceable algorithms (e.g., RIP, CIDR, and MBONE) and unpronounceable
algorithms (e.g., OSPF, IGRP, EGP, and BGP) are treated in great detail. New features, such as
multicast, mobile IP, and resource reservation, are also here.
Malhotra,
IP Routing
For a detailed guide to IP routing, this book contains a lot of material. The protocols covered
include RIP, RIP-2, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF, and BGP-4.
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