Speight J.G. Natural Gas: A Basic Handbook
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Natural
Gas
A
Basic
Handbook
James
G.
Speight,
Ph.D.,
D.Sc.
University
of
Trinidad and Tobago
Gulf
Publishing Company
Houston,
Texas
Natural
Gas:
A
Basic
Handbook
Copyright
0
2007 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas. All rights
reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form without the prior written permission of the publisher.
HOUSTON, TX.
Gulf Publishing Company
2 Greenway Plaza, Suite I020
Houston, TX 77046
AUSTIN, TX
427 Sterzing
St.,
Suite
I0
I
Austin, TX 78704
1098765432
I
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication
Data
Speight,
J.
G.
Natural gas
:
a
basic handbook /James G. Speight.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-933762- 14-4 (978- 1-933762- 14-2
:
alk. paper)
I.
Natural gas.
1.
Title.
TP350.S66 2007
p. cm.
665.7-dc22
2007013232
Printed in the United States
of
America
Printed on acid-free paper.
00
Text design and composition by TIPS Technical Publishing, Inc.
Contents
List
of
Figures ix
List
of
Tables xi
Preface xiii
Part
I
Origin and Properties
1
History
and
Uses
.......................................................
3
1.1
Introduction 3
1.2 History
7
1.3 Composition and Properties
10
1.4 Reservoirs
11
1.5 Conventional Gas 14
1.5.1 Associated Gas 14
1.5.2 Non-Associated Gas 15
1.6 Unconventional Gas 16
1.6.1 Coal-Bed Methane (CBM) 16
1.6.2 Shale Gas
17
1.6.3 Gas Hydrates 18
1.7 Reserves
19
1.8
Uses 20
1.9
Natural Gas Regulation 27
1.9.1 Historical Aspects 27
1.9.2 Federal Regulation
of
the Industry 29
1.10
Natural Gas and the Environment 30
1.11
References
33
V
vi
Contents
2
Origin and Production
............................................
35
2.1 Origin 36
2.2 Exploration 39
2.2.1 Geological Survey 40
2.2.2 Seismic Survey 41
2.2.3 Magnetometers 45
2.2.4 Logging 46
2.3 Reservoirs and Production 48
2.3.1 Natural Gas Reservoirs 48
2.3.2 Petroleum Reservoirs 50
2.4.1 Well Completion 52
2.4.2 The Wellhead 57
2.4.3 Natural Gas Production 57
2.4.4 Well Treatment 58
2.4 Production 52
2.5 References 59
3
Composition and Properties
...................................
61
3.1
Composition 61
3.2 Properties 67
3.2.1 Density 67
3.2.2 Heat of Combustion (Energy Content) 71
3.2.3 Measurement 72
3.2.4 Volatility, Flammability, and Explosive
3.2.5 Behavior
77
3.2.6 Compression and Expansion 78
3.2.7 Liquefied Natural Gas 79
3.2.8 Environmental Properties
80
Properties 73
3.3
References 82
Part
II
Gas
Processing
4
Recovery, Storage, and Transportation
...................
87
4.1 Recovery 87
Contents
vii
4.2 Storage 89
4.2.1 Depleted Gas Reservoirs 93
4.2.2 Aquifers 93
4.2.3 Salt Caverns 95
4.3 Transportation 97
4.3.1 Pipelines 98
4.3.2 Liquefied Natural Gas 100
4.3.3
Liquefied
Petroleum
Gas
101
4.3.4 Compressed Natural Gas
103
4.3.5 Gas-to-Solid 104
4.3.6 Gas-to-Power 106
4.3.7 Gas-to-Liquids 107
4.3.8 Gas-to-Commodity 109
4.4 References 109
History
of Gas Processing
......................................
11
3
5.1 Coal Gas 114
5.2 Natural Gas 125
5.3 References
130
Process Classification
............................................
1
31
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
Water Removal 137
Liquids Removal 140
6.2.1 Absorption 141
6.2.2 Cryogenic Expander Process 142
6.2.3 Membrane Processes 143
Nitrogen Removal 144
Acid Gas Removal 146
6.4.1 Olamine Processes 147
6.4.2 Carbonate and Water Washing Processes 150
6.4.3 Metal Oxide Processes 151
6.4.4 Catalytic Oxidation Processes 154
6.4.5 Molecular Sieve Processes 154
Fractionation 155
Hydrogen Sulfide Conversion
156
References 158
viii
Contents
7
Processes
..............................................................
161
7.1 Olamine Processes 162
7.1.1 Girdler Process 163
7.1.2 Flexsorb Process 167
7.2 Physical Solvent Processes 168
7.2.1 Rectisol Process 170
7.2.2
Sulfinol
Process
170
7.3 Metal Oxide Processes 172
7.3.1
Iron Sponge Process 172
7.3.2 Other Processes 175
7.4 Methanol-Based Processes 177
7.5 Carbonate Washing and Water-Washing Processes 179
7.6 Sulfur Recovery Processes
183
7.6.1 Claus Process 183
7.6.2 Redox Process 185
7.6.3 Wet Oxidation Processes 186
7.6.4 Tail-Gas Treating Processes 186
7.6.5 Hydrogenation and Hydrolysis Processes 187
7.7
Process Selection 189
7.8 References 189
8
Emissions Control and Environmental Aspects
......
193
8.1
Greenhouse Gas Emissions 196
8.2 Air Pollutants and Greenhouse Gases 198
8.3
Emissions During Production and Delivery 200
8.4 Gas Processing 201
8.5 Combustion 203
8.6 Industrial Emissions 203
8.7
Smog
and Acid Rain
205
8.8
References 207
Conversion Factors 209
Glossary 211
Index
233
Preface
Gus
processing,
although generally understandable using chemical and/or
physical principles, is often confusing because of the frequent changes in
terminology and the myriad mathematical equations and symbols used
to describe a process. This renders gas processing a subject that is, at best,
difficult for the layman to understand and appreciate.
This
book repre-
sents an attempt to alleviate the confusion that arises
from
mathematical
relationships and the uncertainties in the terminology. Thus, the book
falls into two convenient subdivisions: Part One deals with the origin and
occurrence of natural gas and describes recovery, properties, and compo-
sition. Part Two deals
with
processing methods and explains the princi-
ples by which natural gas can be prepared for consumer use by removal of
unwanted or noxious constituents.
Although gas processing employs different process types, there is always
an overlap between the various concepts.
In
an introductory text such
as this, repetition is helpful
to
the reader, and this is achieved by subdi-
viding the subject categories and using cross-referencing
so
that the
reader
will
not miss any particular aspect of the processing operations.
While every effort is made to ensure adequate cross-referencing, each
chapter is a stand-alone segment of the book and has sufficient informa-
tion to give the reader the necessary background.
In
summary, the book describes gas processing for the non-technical
reader and serves as a handy, easy-to-use source to compare the scien-
tific and technological aspects of gas-processing operations and the
means by which the environment might be protected.
In
addition, the
book is suitable for use in courtrooms and boardrooms as well as for
junior scientists and first-year engineering students.
-James
G.
Speight, Ph.D., D.Sc.
The University of Trinidad and Tobago
xiii
Part
I
Origin
and
Properties
CHAPTER
1
History
and
Uses
1.1
Introduction
Natural gas (also called
marsh gas
and
swamp gas
in older texts and
more recently
ZandfiZZ gas)
is a gaseous fossil fuel found in
oil
fields,
natural gas fields, and coal beds.
As
one
of
the cleanest, safest, and
most useful
of
all energy sources, it is a vital component of the
world’s supply of energy. While
it
is commonly grouped
in
with other
fossil fuels and sources of energy, there are many characteristics
of
natural gas that make it unique.
Natural gas is the result
of
the decay
of
animal remains and plant
remains
(organic debris)
that has occurred over millions
of
years. Over
time, the mud and soil that covered the organic debris changed
to
rock and trapped the debris beneath the newly-formed rock sedi-
ments. Pressure and, to some extent, heat (as yet undefined) changed
some
of
the organic material into coal, some
into
oil (petroleum), and
some into natural gas. Whether or not the debris formed coal, petro-
leum, or gas depended upon the nature
of
the debris and the localized
conditions under which the changes occurred.
Natural gas is found in reservoirs beneath the surface
of
the earth (see
“Composition and Properties”) and is often associated with petro-
leum, although gas that is not associated with petroleum is also
known. Production companies use sophisticated, expensive tech-
nology to find and drill into these reservoirs. Once brought from
underground, the natural gas is refined to remove impurities such as
water, other gases, sand, and other compounds. Some hydrocarbons,
such as propane and butane, are removed and sold separately. Other
3