Mullins L.J. Management and organisational behaviour, Seventh edition

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Main methods of achieving job enrichment include the following:

■ permitting workers greater freedom and control over the scheduling and pacing of

their work as opposed to machine pacing;

■ allowing workers to undertake a full task cycle, build or assemble a complete prod-

uct or component, or deliver a complete service;

■ providing workers with tasks or jobs which challenge their abilities and make fuller

use of their training, expertise and skills;

■ giving workers greater freedom to work in self-managing teams with greater respon-

sibility for monitoring their own performance and the minimum of direct

supervision; and

■ providing workers with the opportunity to have greater direct contact with clients,

consumers or users of the product or service.

Attempts to improve intrinsic motivation must not only include considerations of job

characteristics but also take account of individual differences and attributes, and

people’s orientation to work. A popular and comprehensive model of job enrichment

has been developed by Hackman and Oldham (see Figure18.6).

The model views job

enrichment in terms of increasing five core job dimensions: skill variety, task identity,

task significance, autonomy and feedback. These core job characteristics create three

psychological states:

■ experienced meaningfulness of the work;

■ experienced responsibility for the outcomes of the work; and

■ knowledge of the actual results of the work activities.

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A COMPREHENSIVE MODEL OF JOB ENRICHMENT

Figure 18.6 A job characteristics model of work motivation

Five core dimensions

The five core job dimensions can be summarised as follows:

■ skill variety – the extent to which a job entails different activities and involves a

range of different skills and talents;

■ task identity – the extent to which a job involves completion of a whole piece of

work with a visible outcome;

■ task significance – the extent to which a job has a meaningful impact on other

people, either inside or outside the organisation;

■ autonomy – the extent to which a job provides freedom, independence and discre-

tion in planning the work and determining how to undertake it;

■ feedback – the extent to which work activities result in direct and clear information

on the effectiveness of job performance.

An example of a job with little enrichment could be that of a production assembly line

worker, or a kitchen porter, where all five core characteristics are likely to score low. An

example of an enriched job could be that of a parish priest who draws upon a wide

range of social skills and talents, who can usually identify with the whole task, and

whose job has clear and important meaning and significance. There is a very high level

of autonomy, and likely to be direct and clear feedback.

From these five core job dimensions, Hackman and Oldham have developed an equa-

tion which gives a single index of a person’s job profile. By answering a questionnaire –

the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) – and by giving a score (between 1 and 7) to each job

dimension, the person can calculate an overall measure of job enrichment, called the

motivating potential score (MPS).

Examples of questions from the JDS are:

■ How much variety is there in your job?

■ To what extent does your job involve doing a whole and identifiable piece of work?

■ In general, how significant or important is your job?

■ How much autonomy is there in your job?

■ To what extent does doing the job itself provide you with information about your

work performance?

Skill Task Task

{

variety + identity + significance

}

MPS = × Autonomy × Feedback

The first three job dimensions of skill variety, task identity and task significance are

averaged, since it is the combination of these dimensions which contributes to experi-

enced meaningfulness of work. The remaining two job dimensions, autonomy and

feedback, stand on their own. Since scores for skill variety, task identity and task signif-

icance are additive, this means that the absence of one dimension can be partially

offset by the presence of the other dimensions. However, if either autonomy or feed-

back is absent then, because of the multiplicative relationship, the MPS would be zero.

The job would offer no potential to motivate the person.

Empirical support for the model

Empirical support for the model is mixed. From their own studies, Hackman and

Oldham claim that people with enriched jobs, and high score levels on the Job

Diagnostic Survey, experienced more satisfaction and internal motivation. The core job

dimensions of skill variety, task identity and task significance combined to predict the

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PART 7 MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES

Motivating

potential score

level of experienced meaningfulness of the work. The core dimensions of autonomy

and feedback did not relate so clearly to experienced responsibility and knowledge of

results. Some of the other dimensions were as good, or better, in predicting these psy-

chological conditions. In general, however, the results of their studies showed that jobs

which scored high on the core dimensions were associated with high levels of personal

and work outcomes.

In a study of a sample of six hotels (with between 35 and 65 bedrooms) in Great

Yarmouth, Lee-Ross undertook an examination of the reliability of the job diagnostic

survey among seasonal workers. From an analysis of 163 questionnaires, Lee-Ross con-

cludes that in general reliability scores were compatible with those of Hackman and

Oldham. The job diagnostic survey appears to hold just as well for hotel workers as for

workers in other industries.

Based on integrating Hackman and Oldham’s job characteristics model with

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Roe et al. propose a general model of work motivation,

tested with Bulgarian, Hungarian and Dutch workers. The model indicates that situa-

tional characteristics lead to critical psychological factors, inducing two main

motivational factors – job involvement and organisational commitment – which in

turn lead to two proximal outcomes of work motivation – effort and job satisfaction,

which affect performance, stress and tendency to leave the organisation. Although

there were some differences there was also a large degree of similarity in results across

the three countries.

Approaches to improved job design now take on a broader perspective. For example, in

the context of technological change the focus of attention has spread from manipulat-

ing the tasks of individual jobs to the wider organisational context. Attention needs to

be given to improving the effectiveness of the organisation in achieving its goals and

objectives; and helping the development of skills and resources to manage successfully

changes in the way the organisation functions. (See Figure 18.7.)

The quality of working life

Increased interest in job design has been associated with the development of a broader

social concern for the quality of working life (QWL). The concept of QWL is not new

but an approach to the organisation of work and managing people that has evolved

over a long period of time. In 1973 a Department of Employment report, On the Quality

of Working Life, summarised case studies of people’s experiences of work and descrip-

tions of experiments in improving work systems in four countries, including the UK.

It made recommendations for future government initiatives. The report dealt with five

main themes:

■ efficiency at work;

■ satisfaction at work;

■ the link between satisfaction and efficiency;

■ the influence of environmental factors and particularly work technology; and

■ developments of thought in social science and people’s expectations from work.

It is not always easy to determine the extent to which attention to QWL is based on

the exercise of a genuine social responsibility (discussed in Chapter 5) or based on the

pursuit of increased economic efficiency. In practice, the distinction is blurred and

attention to QWL is likely to be motivated by a combination of concern with two

related issues:

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BROADER ORGANISATIONAL APPROACHES TO IMPROVED JOB DESIGN

■ a moral or ethical motivation based on the recognition of broader educational stan-

dards, changing social values and wider expectations of the quality of working life,

including the satisfaction that people derive from their work, and the functioning

and management of organisations; and

■ motivation through good business practice and enlightened self-interest, the need

for cost competitiveness, and attempts to overcome high levels of absenteeism, staff

turnover and dissatisfaction, and other obstacles to the search for improved organi-

sational performance.

Since the publication of the Department of Employment report increasing emphasis is

being given to the importance of a QWL culture. Such a culture can be seen as a neces-

sary foundation for a successful strategy of Total Quality Management. In order to

translate the concept of QWL into practice it is best understood if it is seen as a goal, as

a process for achieving that goal and as a philosophy setting out the way people

should be managed.

■ QWL as a goal – improving organisational effectiveness through the creation of

more challenging, satisfying and effective jobs and work environments.

■ QWL as a process – calling for efforts to realise this goal through the active involve-

ment of people throughout the organisation. It is about organisational change

usually from a ‘control’ to an ‘involvement’ organisation.

■ QWL as a philosophy – viewing people as ‘assets’ capable of contributing skills,

knowledge, experience and commitment, rather than as ‘costs’ that are merely

extensions of the production process. It argues that encouraging involvement and

providing the environment in which it can flourish produces tangible rewards for

both individuals and organisations.

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PART 7 MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES

Comprehensive

model of job

enrichment

Job

enrichment

Job

enlargement

Job

rotation

The work/life

debate

JOB

DESIGN

Quality of

working

life

Flexible

working

arrangements

Employee

involvement

and

empowerment

Self-managed

work groups

Figure 18.7 Main approaches to job design

The essential

culture of QWL

The QWL approach is therefore a broad and flexible strategy rooted in the involvement

and participation of people at all levels in the organisation.

A major study into the quality of working life carried out by the Institute of

Management and University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology

tracked 5000 managers over a five-year period. The survey revealed a serious mismatch

between the values and expectations of individuals and company behaviour. Almost 60

per cent say they value their work and home life equally, yet only 15 per cent report

that their organisation makes any attempt to help them balance their work and home

commitments. The majority of professionals feel under constant time pressure with

tight deadlines as the main reason for working long hours and over half suffer from

information overload. Since the study began, 85 per cent of the managers taking part

in the study report that the biggest change in the workplace is the sheer volume of

information they have to deal with.

According to a survey carried out by Robert Half International on behalf of

Management Today, 67 per cent of respondents dismissed the job-for-life as a key

demand for their working lives. ‘People are no longer relying on their companies to

provide career development or even satisfaction – they want a more maverick lifestyle.’

A further trend, especially among younger managers, was the attraction of flexibility

and working from home.

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Quality of

working life

study

Institutionalising change

Today’s business climate is increasingly characterised by

fierce global competition and rapid change with ever rising

standards of reliability, performance and quality. Success in

such a competitive environment requires continuous

improvement in methods of production and service delivery

and an ability to spot opportunities and respond to them.

Organisations must adapt to this environment and keep on

adapting it is not a once and for all task. It is not enough for

example to identify successful practices of competitors

and copy them, because by the time the changes have

been implemented the competition may well have moved

on. What organisations must do is come to terms with

change and build it into the culture of their organisations.

Change, in other words, must be institutionalised.

How does an organisation become responsive to

change? There is no simple answer to this question and

factors such as sufficient investment and up to date tech-

nology play an important part but it is generally the people

who work in organisations who make the biggest differ-

ence. The 1997 European Commission’s Green Paper

‘Partnership for a new organisation at work’ identified

people as the key resource in the way work should be

organised in future if Europe is to be competitive. In the

words of the Green Paper ‘Organisations are valued not

only on the basis of their products or machines but primar-

ily on the knowledge creating capacity of the workforce,

the people who work for them, how they work, what work

means to them. The rate of innovation and change in prod-

ucts and technologies is so rapid that the competitive

advantages of companies and countries will be the capac-

ity of the workforce to create knowledge.’

Improving the quality of working life

ACAS’s own experience accords with many of the mes-

sages of the European Green Paper, particularly the

importance of organising work to get the best from people.

ACAS has produced two advisory booklets ‘Effective

organisations: the people factor’ and ‘Teamwork: success

through people’. These booklets describe an approach to

improving organisational effectiveness by enhancing the

quality of working life through more challenging, satisfying

jobs coupled with the involvement and commitment of

employees and their representatives. This way of working

promotes understanding and responsibility which com-

bined with open communication can help an organisation

become more responsive. If people understand what they

are doing and why they are doing it they are more likely to

understand when and why change is needed. Inherent in

this approach are a number of general principles and I

intend to use the rest of this article to look at some of these

in more detail.

First of all managers must believe in people as ‘assets’

capable of contributing skills, knowledge, experience and

If you want people to do a good job, give them a good job

to do

EXHIBIT 18.1



Arising from the QWL approach, increasing attention is focused today on the debate of

the work/life balance. In 1998, Management Today conducted their first ‘Worklife

Survey’. Results of the survey found that although for many, work remained a high

source of satisfaction, it wasn’t going too well for Britain’s managers. The price of a sat-

isfying career can be high with 84 per cent admitting to making important personal

sacrifices in pursuit of their career.

Using the original 1998 survey as a benchmark, Management Today undertook a

second survey in 2001.

Things have changed since we brought managers into the thick of the work/life debate with our

first survey into staff attitudes in 1998. Today, achieving a proper balance is seen as an entitle-

ment by almost all those who work … And that in turn is a reflection of the changing contract

between organisations and individuals.

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PART 7 MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES

commitment, rather than as ‘costs’ that are merely exten-

sions of the production process. Douglas McGregor’s

well-known polarisation of managers into Theory ‘X’ or

Theory ‘Y’ types illustrates the two extremes that managers

might assume about what motivates human behaviour.

Theory ‘X’ managers believe that people inherently dislike

work and will avoid it if they can and must therefore be

directed bribed or coerced and controlled. Theory ‘Y’ man-

agers on the other hand assume that people find work as

natural as play or rest and will exercise self-direction and

self-control to achieve objectives to which they are com-

mitted and have more potential than is generally used.

Flexible workers willing to contribute ideas are more likely

to be developed by managers of the theory ‘Y’ persuasion.

Well-designed jobs

Second, in the words of Herzberg used as the title of this

article ‘If you want people to do a good job, give them a

good job to do’. Work that is broken down into small

simple processes is likely to provide little in the way of job

satisfaction, understanding or commitment. If jobs are to

provide these rewards they must intrinsically interesting

and worthwhile. Jobs in other words must be well designed

and although it is never possible to incorporate all desir-

able characteristics they should ideally:

■ form a coherent whole, either independently or with

related jobs. Performance of the job (or jobs) should

make a significant contribution to the completion of the

product or service, a contribution which is visible to the

job holder;

■ provide some variety of pace, method, location and skill;

■ provide feedback of performance, both directly and

through other people;

■ allow for some discretion and control in the timing,

sequence and pace of work efforts;

■ include some responsibility for outcome;

■ provide some opportunity for learning and problem

solving (within the individual’s competence);

■ be seen as leading towards some sort of desirable future;

■ provide opportunity for development in ways that the

individual finds relevant.

Third, the management style must complement the way

work is organised. Authoritarian management is inappropri-

ate where people are being developed to take responsibility

for their own area of work. The manager’s role should be that

of initiator, counsellor and facilitator with particular tasks to:

■ provide a vision and communicate it;

■ encourage effective teamwork and co-operation;

■ encourage the free flow of ideas and initiative;

■ develop subordinates rather than rigidly controlling

them;

■ oversee more flexible less authoritarian work structures

and ensure objectives are met.

The need to initiate and manage change will place increas-

ing emphasis on leadership skills with a manager’s

authority coming not from his or her status but earned

through competence. Managers will need to be able to

motivate and inspire those around them. The skills required

will include the ability to build trust and openness, support

self motivation and delegate decision making to the rele-

vant locations and people. Managers should also be able

to accept questioning and debate as part of the organisa-

tion’s search for the best answer and understand and

manage the interactions of people individually and in

groups. In addition managers will need to help employees

develop appropriate skills to enable them to adopt joint

problemsolving and continuous improvement techniques.

The two ACAS booklets provide more detail on the prin-

ciples involved in this way of working and contain practical

advice on such matters as introducing teamwork and

choosing and developing teams. In addition an ACAS

Occasional Paper ‘Teamwork: key issues and develop-

ments’ discusses the development of teamwork and the

implications for industrial relations.

(Reprinted with permission from Brian Chaney, Senior Adviser ACAS, QWL

News and Abstracts, No. 142, Spring 2000, pp. 12–14.)

Exhibit 18.1 continued

THE WORK/LIFE BALANCE

Results of the survey showed evi-

dence that the long-hours culture is

levelling off and even improving,

but that cutting back on office

hours and even introducing flexible

working schedules is not having the

expected effect on relieving pressure

and improving the sense of balance.

Three-quarters of respondents report

that their workload pressure has

increased over the past three years

and the number of managers who

feel they have been forced to put

work before family life is slightly up.

A recent study from the Department

of Trade and Industry (DTI) draws

attention to the fact that the work-

place has altered dramatically over

the last decade and old methods are

no longer appropriate as employers

accept that their most valuable asset is their workforce.

Employers worldwide are recognising of their own accord that it makes good business sense to

provide opportunities for their workforce to achieve a better work-life balance – with a pay back

of increased morale, better effectiveness and productivity, and the ability to embrace change.

The results also show there is no one standard work/life balance policy that will suit

every business. Arguably there is no such thing as work/life balance but different

work/life balances with different parts of the jigsaw taking on greater importance at

different times in our working lives.

Summers and Nowicki suggest that the more

secure the organisation and the less competitive the environment, the more latitude

the manager has to encourage employees to lead balanced lives.

Attitude to work

An interesting point of view is put forward by Reeves who contends that our attitude to

work needs a radical overhaul and that it is nonsense that ‘wicked work’ gets the blame

for most of our ills. Work is our community, how we identify ourselves and it is becom-

ing more central to our lives. It is a provider of friends, gossip, networks, fun,

creativity, purpose, comfort, belonging, identity – and even love. Work is where life is.

People doing work they enjoy are happy – not only at work but generally in the other

areas of their lives too. Happiness lies in meaningful work for us all. The line between

‘work’ and ‘life’ is rapidly being rubbed out. Few people want to put their work in a

box labelled ‘nine to five’.

In contrast, however, Armitage maintains that the image presented by the media is one

where work is made so attractive to the extent it surpasses the Protestant ethic of being

good for the soul and becomes something we must all do for the good of our well-being.

Armitage questions whether it is time to re-assess what we do and whether we get satis-

faction from it. Although we may not have unlimited control over what we do, we have

to make greater effort to balance the amount of time and effort we put into our work and

our personal lives. ‘Once work begins to take over one’s life to the exclusion of all other

interests, that is the time to call a halt. If not, then we run the very real risk of not only

becoming a workaholic, but also of endangering personal relationships and friendships

and maybe even suffering the longer-term effects of ill health.’

CHAPTER 18 JOB SATISFACTION AND WORK PERFORMANCE

721

Achieving a work/life balance isn’t always easy

Photo: Greg Pease/Getty Images

Case study examples of the work/life balance are given in Management in

Action 18.3.

A central feature of the work/life balance is flexible working arrangements – dis-

cussed below.

The general movement away from mass production and towards customer-driven

niche markets, the downsizing of organisations, and advances in scientific and techno-

logical knowledge have emphasised the demand for a highly skilled, trained and

motivated workforce. Recognition of the efficient use of human resources for business

success together with advances in social democracy have highlighted the increasing

importance of employee involvement and industrial partnership including the role

played by trade unions.

ACAS draws attention to the importance of exchanging information, pooling ideas

and sharing concerns with employees and their representatives and developing mutual

trust. Hazards of not sharing information, ideas and concerns lead to: suspicion and

distrust; rumours and gossip; wasting of employees’ time, knowledge, skills and ideas;

inefficiency; and dissatisfied customers. There is a checklist indicating priority for

action to see if there is a need to take action to improve the way you:

■ provide employees with written statements of the main terms and conditions of

employment together with grievance and disciplinary procedures;

■ give employees up-to-date information about the organisation and listen to what

they have to say;

■ use a variety of ways for sharing ideas and information – for example, briefings, staff

meetings, newsletters, email, notice boards;

■ communicate with all employees including part-timers, shift workers and those

away from the workplace;

■ make information available to employees and job candidates who have language dif-

ficulties, impaired vision or other disabilities;

■ consult with trade unions and other employee representatives and individuals;

■ work together with employees and their representatives.

Despite many people believing that participation leads to higher productivity and is

necessary for survival in an increasingly competitive world, Heller questions whether

organisation participation is really working. Taking a panoramic view of the evidence,

the result is not very reassuring and Heller reports on a chequered history. On average,

employees at the lowest level of organisation have very little influence even over their

own immediate tasks. There are a number of ad hoc schemes of participation, some of

which are successful at least in the short term, but others are inauthentic or fail to

achieve promises. In order to overcome problems with organisational participation,

Heller maintains that it is necessary for clarity about what participation is meant to

achieve, it must be recognised as an essential antecedent to the full utilisation of an

organisation’s skill and experience, and the design of influence sharing has to be seen

as a systematic and integrated feature of organisational governance.

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EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT

Is participation

really working?

Boredom and frustration at work is often the result of an employee’s lack of involvement

with the company’s goals and a feeling that their ideas are not wanted or listened to. For

the employer, staff turnover increases as employees walk out of the door for more interest-

ing jobs. There is also an impact on levels of customer service and quality – both key areas

of success in today’s competitive environment.

Sir Brian Wolfson, Chairman of Investors in People UK

Increasing business competitiveness demands that organisations have to offer the best

quality products or services for the best price. This requires that organisations develop

and harness the talents and commitment of all their employees. Getting the best out of

people and attempting to improve job satisfaction demand a spirit of teamwork and

co-operation, and allowing people a greater say in decisions that affect them at work.

In order to improve business performance, managers will need to relinquish close con-

trol in favour of greater empowerment of employees (discussed in Chapter 21).

Although there is a continuing debate about the real benefits of empowerment there

appears to be a general assumption that: ‘empowerment programmes will result in

motivated staff, quality customer service and improved profits’.

From a discussion of

the benefits and problems of empowerment and a review of its operation in a number

of companies, Pickard concludes that empowerment does appear to be having a radical

effect on the way people work. As an example, Pickard describes improved job satisfac-

tion and the changing attitude of staff arising from the introduction of empowerment

at Harvester restaurants. Within a framework handed down from head office, staff

work in teams which are responsible for making decisions on the running of individual

restaurants.

In a review of issues and debates about empowerment, Wilkinson reports that:

All these theories share a common assumption that workers are an untapped resource with

knowledge and experience and an interest in becoming involved, and employers need to provide

opportunities and structures for their involvement. It is also assumed that participative decision

making is likely to lead to job satisfaction and better quality decisions and that gains are avail-

able both to employers (increased efficiency) and workers (job satisfaction), in short an

everyone-wins scenario.

An important development in work redesign and job enrichment is a form of work

organisation based on self-managed work groups, and teamworking (discussed in

Chapter 14). This involves a socio-technical approach with technological processes,

production methods and the way in which work is carried out integrated with the

social system of the organisation, including the informal group structure. Although the

effectiveness of self-managed groups does not appear to be all positive, individual

members of the group do have higher levels of job satisfaction.

The group assumes greater autonomy and responsibility for the effective perform-

ance of the work. Key features of the self-managed work group include the following:

■ specific goals are set for the group but members decide the best means by which

these goals are to be achieved;

■ group members have greater freedom and choice, and wider discretion over the

planning, execution and control of their own work;

■ collectively members of the group have the necessary variety of expertise and skills

to successfully undertake the tasks of the group;

■ the level of external supervision is reduced and the role of supervisor becomes more

one of giving advice and support to the group;

■ feedback and evaluation is related to the performance of the group as a whole.

In the USA, self-managed teams are widespread and increasing in popularity.

Pressures to demonstrate cost competitiveness may result in autonomous work groups

being incorporated into a package of changes associated with the requirements for

CHAPTER 18 JOB SATISFACTION AND WORK PERFORMANCE

EMPOWERMENT AND JOB SATISFACTION

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SELF-MANAGED WORK GROUPS

Popularity and

applications

high-performance work design. It also seems likely that greater concern for the quality

of working life, current trends in restructuring and increasing demands for work flexi-

bility are likely to promote a greater interest in self-managed teams.

Wilson points out that self-directed teams feature high in the list of most popular

management tools in a study by the Institute of Management with Bain & Company.

‘Once people are fully committed to team working and enthusiastic about getting on

with it, training can be a rewarding experience for everyone involved and also great

fun.’

However, despite the apparent potential advantages, to date self-managed teams

appear to have only limited applications. For example, Torrington suggests that the

twenty-first century has brought a much more sceptical attitude to autonomous work-

ing groups and teamwork as a way of improving the quality of working life and

empowering employees. ‘While there remain many strong supporters and many organ-

isations are committed to this approach, it is in the achievement of improved

performance where teamwork has often fallen short.’

A strong supporter of the idea of the autonomous work group is Waterman. In order to

build spirit, morale and commitment in any organisation Waterman believes that

people should be in control of at least some part of their lives and that they should be

given some influence over things that affect them. The quintessence of this belief is

the self-managing team – groups of three to ten people who work without any direct

supervision. Employees should be organised into teams that cut across old boundaries,

trained and placed in jobs that challenge their abilities, given the information they

need, informed of what they need to accomplish, and then turned loose.

ACAS also strongly supports autonomous work groups for both increased competi-

tiveness and for the quality of working life.

The concept of autonomous teams may be misleading as teams will always be answerable to

management and rely on the provision of resources and other support. Nevertheless, one of the

best ways to ensure that teams continue to develop is to move towards self-regulation – an

important way of monitoring the progress of teams is to assess the level of dependence on man-

agement. It is for management to encourage progress by helping the teams develop greater

independence.

Reorganising the workforce into teams is not easy but when successfully developed, teamwork-

ing has been shown to be a way of improving competitiveness and at the same time enhancing

the quality of working life for employees.

In Chapter 16, we discussed the demand for greater flexibility in patterns of work

organisation and the workforce, including the flexible firm and core and peripheral

workers and new legal rights for parents. Moves towards greater flexibility may have

noticeable effects on the job satisfaction and performance of staff. For example, a

survey by the Institute of Management and Manpower plc indicates that flexible work-

ing has become a permanent feature of the UK employment scene. Employers seek

competitive advantage by reducing the number of core staff, using methods of more

flexible employment and alternative ways of working.

A joint management/union publication points out that flexible employment is now

a vital element of both corporate and UK competitiveness.

Although part-time employees are more likely to be working in lower grades, their presence is

increasingly at more senior levels ... For some employees, part-time work is seen as a ‘half-way

house’ offering a chance to progress towards full-time employment. However for many, part-time

employment is their preferred choice enabling them to balance work and home life ... While an

individual may be regarded by an organisation as a part-time employee, that individual might

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Autonomy and

control

FLEXIBLE WORKING ARRANGEMENTS