Marcus P. Corrosion mechanisms in theory and practice
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[142]. The surface Co concentration is a measure of the extent of corrosion. An
unexposed disk surface generates no measurable Co signal despite small pores in the
C overcoat that expose the Co-based alloy to the environment. Following T/H
exposure, a Co-containing corrosion product forms on top of the overcoat as a result
of attack of the exposed areas (Fig. 3b). Using the data of Novotny et al., the Co
surface concentration is found to vary with exp(RH/21) and t
1/2
, with a thermal
activation energy of 0.25 eV. In order to estimate disk lifetime with these data, one
must assume that lifetime is inversely proportional to surface Co concentration. A
later work describes an approach to lifetime estimation that uses a functional test, a
head flying over a disk after T/H exposure [136]. If the head contains a magnetoresistive
sensor, the number of asperities on the disk can be determined. This is a very relevant
measurement because, as mentioned earlier, disk drives fail by head crashes long
before they develop measurable increases in error rate from corrosion of magnetic
material. In that work, the disk lifetime was found to vary with exp(-RH/13),
with an activation energy of 0.27 eV. Another study determined activation energy
by electrical resistance changes for sputter-deposited CoCr films exposed to T/H
conditions [143]. Depending on composition and deposition conditions, values
ranging from 0.08 to 0.3 eV were determined. The very low thermal activation energies
reported in this study call into question the usefulness of performing stress tests at
elevated temperatures for this system.
Thin-Film Inductive Head Materials
The structure of thin-film inductive recording heads results in the exposure to the
environment of small areas of metal, often permalloy (Ni-20Fe), which is a
relatively corrosion-resistant alloy. In fact, in-service corrosion of permalloy is not a
problem and thin-film inductive heads have no history of corrosion-induced field
failure. However, corrosion of permalloy can occur during manufacturing, leading to
yield losses.
Exposure of freshly deposited permalloy films to the atmosphere or oxidation
in pure O
2
up to 250°C results in surface segregation and preferential oxidation of Fe
to Fe
2
O
3
[144–146]. However, anodically formed films are enriched in Ni and consist
of an inner layer of NiO and an outer layer of mixed nickel and iron hydroxides
[147,148]. The more reactive element Fe oxidizes first and is enriched at the surface
during atmospheric oxidation but dissolves into solution during anodic oxidation.
The method of deposition has been reported to have a large influence on the
corrosion properties of permalloy [149–151]. In particular, plated permalloy
films have been found to be more susceptible to corrosion than either bulk material
or vacuum-deposited films of nominally the same composition. For instance,
sputter-deposited permalloy was found to passivate in pH 2 solutions, but plated
films did not [150]. Another study in neutral chloride solutions showed that plated
permalloy had a lower pitting potential than bulk permalloy [151]. These reports
suggested that plated films either have regions locally enriched in Fe or have a
crystallographic orientation that is more susceptible to attack. However, little
supporting evidence was provided.
An explanation for the enhanced corrosion susceptibility of plated permalloy
films was offered in a study that examined the walls of pits in thin-film samples using
Auger electron spectroscopy [149]. The pit walls showed a large enhancement of
674 Frankel and Braithwaite
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
S compared with top surfaces at regions away from pits. C and N were also enriched
at the pit walls. Analogous experiments with sputter-deposited permalloy films
indicated that S was present in negligible amounts at both the pit wall and top
surface, N was absent at both locations, and less C was present on the newer pit wall
surface than on the top surface. The coincidental appearance of S, C, and N at pit
walls in plated permalloy suggested that saccharin (C
7
H
5
NO
3
S), a stress-relieving
agent added to the plating bath, was responsible for the poor corrosion resistance.
Apparently, a small amount of the surface-active molecule is incorporated in the alloy
during plating, reduces corrosion resistance, and enriches at the pit surface during pit
growth. Similar behavior has been described for the case of small S additions to
Ni-25Fe single crystals [148].
As described before, current magnetic recording technology uses only inductive
heads for writing. However, modern high-density disks with high magnetic
coercivity require a write head fabricated from a material with a higher magnetic
moment than permalloy. Many current production devices make use of a NiFe alloy
having higher Fe than permalloy (45Ni-55Fe). The corrosion characteristics of
high-Fe NiFe have not been reported, but it is certainly more susceptible to corrosion
than permalloy given the higher Fe content. Co alloys have also been suggested for
use as a high-moment soft magnetic material in write heads [152]. The corrosion
behavior of electrodeposited CoNiFe alloys has been reported [153,154]. As with
permalloy, sulfur incorporation into CoNiFe was shown to be detrimental to the
corrosion behavior in 2.5% NaCl. The presence of 0.3 at % S resulted in a 400 mV
lower pitting potential than for a similar alloy with < 0.1 at % S [153]. An alloy
deposited with thiourea as an additive instead of saccharin and an extremely high S
content (3.8 at %) exhibited only active dissolution in 2.5% NaCl with no evidence
of passivity [154].
A corrosion protection scheme developed for Co and Co-based alloys may
be useful for reducing corrosion during processing [155]. The concept takes advantage
of the remarkable corrosion resistance imparted to Cu by benzotriazole (BTA). A
Cu-BTA film is generated on the surface of a Co sample when it is immersed in a
solution containing cupric ions and BTA. Due to its relative nobility, Cu tends to
exchange with Co and plate on the surface. However, the two-step sequential
reduction of cupric is stopped before metallic Cu is produced because cuprous
ions react with the BTA to form a Cu(I)-BTA protective film. This film is robust
in the sense that it provides protection even after the part is removed from the
BTA-containing solution and is subsequently exposed to environments devoid of
BTA. Such treatments have resulted in a 100-fold reduction of corrosion rate for
Co samples in a DI water droplet.
Magnetoresistive (MR) Head Materials
A cross section of the nm-thick layers in MR heads is exposed during the
lapping process. If all of the metals used in the device do not corrode slowly or
spontaneously passivate in the potentially aggressive lapping environment, severe
corrosion can result. In addition, given the variety of the metals used, their susceptibility
to corrosion, and their intimate contact, galvanic corrosion can be a severe problem.
Considerable work has been performed in recent years addressing this liability. In
particular, the corrosion behavior of the antiferromagnetic layer has been extensively
Corrosion of Data Storage Devices 675
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
characterized because it is usually the most susceptible layer in the structure.
MnFe, a commonly used antiferromagnetic layer, has been shown to be extremely
corrodible; for instance, it exhibits only active dissolution 0.1 N Na
2
SO
4
[139]. In
a buffered borate solution of higher pH, it forms a protective passive film at high
potentials after a rather large active peak, and the corrosion rate, peak current
density, and passive current density all decrease with increasing pH. These results
are interesting because the possibility exists that environment control may be an
effective corrosion mitigant in certain process steps (e.g., lapping) that might
otherwise be aggressive.
Given the corrosion susceptibility of MnFe, the suitability of using several alter-
native antiferromagnetic layers has been investigated, including MnIr [139,156–158],
MnRh [158], MnNi [157–160], MnNiCr [159], MnPd [160], MnPdPt [160], and NiO
[161]. The noble metal substitutions for Fe make the potential of these new alloys
much more positive, which decreases galvanic interactions with other metals in the
structure such as Cu. The corrosion rates of MnIr and MnRh are apparently only
slightly lower than that of MnFe in many environments [139,157,158]. The pitting
potentials in chloride for MnNi, MnPd, and MnPdPt have been reported to be signi-
ficantly higher than that of MnFe [160]. Replacement of the most susceptible material
in the structure with an oxide certainly is desirable from the corrosion standpoint. For
example, spin valves made with NiO antiferromagnetic layers were shown to exhibit
remarkable corrosion resistance [161].
Magneto-Optic (MO) Alloys
The alloys used as MO recording media are extremely reactive because of their high
rare-earth (e.g., Tb) content. Given the free energy of formation of terbium oxide
(–446 kcal/mol), there exist few metal oxides that are thermodynamically stable in
the presence of Tb metal, even at room temperature [162]. Therefore, attempts to
protect Tb by using an oxide overlayer result in oxidation of the Tb and reduction
of the overlayer. The oxides that form on Fe-26Tb in air at 200°C have been studied
by AES [163,164]. Upon exposure to air at room temperature, a 20-Å outer layer of
iron oxide covered a 60-Å layer of terbium oxide with approximate compositions of
Fe
2
O
3
and Tb
2
O
3
, respectively. Oxidation at 200°C resulted in the formation of an
internally oxidized zone consisting of terbium oxide and metallic FeTb that was
enriched in Fe. This zone grew initially with parabolic kinetics, and then the growth
rate accelerated. At that point, the two outer oxide layers started to thicken.
Exposure of MO films to aqueous solutions or high-humidity conditions results
in localized attack [162,165]. Pits can form even during brief immersion in DI water
or long-term storage in office ambient conditions. Analysis of pits in Fe-23Tb-12Co
by scanning Auger microscopy found depletion of Fe and Co from the pitted region
[162]. This apparently reflects the low solubility of Tb
2
O
3
, which nonetheless does
not provide corrosion protection. Such pits formed in aqueous solutions are circular
in shape. In contrast, the localized corrosion formed under atmospheric conditions
is wormlike, similar in nature to filiform corrosion.
Many different alloying elements, when added to FeTbCo in the amount of
about 5%, have been found to improve the corrosion resistance [135,165]. Both
improved passivity and reduced pitting susceptibility have been achieved in this
fashion. The primary protection of MO disks, however, derives from protective
676 Frankel and Braithwaite
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overlayers. The MO layer is typically covered by a dielectric layer for optical and
thermal reasons. Some designs employ a metallic layer such as Al as a reflector,
which covers the dielectric layer. Sputter-deposited Al binary alloys, which display
for superior pitting resistance compared with pure Al, have also been used. The
metallic reflective layer in MO disk is the first application of these remarkably
corrosion-resistant alloys that have generated significant attention [166–171].
Corrosion Mitigation of Magnetic-Storage Components
The preceding subsections describe the corrosion concerns and liabilities of
magnetic-storage components and devices, as well as efforts taken to reduce
corrosion. As a summary, care must be taken in materials selection, in partic-
ular to minimize galvanic corrosion. Heads and disks are covered with carbon
layers in service, so it is important to consider issues such as electrochemical
reactivity of the carbon layers (which will vary with composition and details
of the deposition method) and coverage (which depends on the thickness of
the carbon layer and the roughness of the head or disk). Certain processes,
such as lapping and rinsing, are amenable to environmental control, and it is
critical to understand and control the response of all exposed metals to process
fluids. On the disk drive level, sealing is a critical issue. It is possible to seal
drives using gaskets in an attempt to excluse the external environment,
although rubber gaskets are permeable to water to a certain extent. Also,
breather holes are often incorporated into drives to allow pressure equilibra-
tion, which is important, for instance, in laptops used in airplanes. One can
envision how a portable device might be transported between a cool air-conditioned
environment and a hot and humid one. The relative rates of heat and humidity
transport will control whether deleterious water condensation occurs under
such conditions.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Significant progress has been made during the past quarter century in reducing
environmentally induced damage in microelectronic and magnetic data-storage
devices. These improvements have been made even though metallization features
continue to become more susceptible to corrosion. Important advancements
responsible for this progress have involved such aspects as improved manufacturing
control, elimination of contamination sources, use of improved materials, and
development of less vulnerable designs. One remaining significant shortcoming is the
lack of a capability to predict reliability and service life using accelerated-aging data.
This situation primarily exists because we still have not developed an adequate
physical understanding of the relevant corrosion processes. Several factors have
contributed to this “corrosion science” inadequacy including (a) the existence of
numerous coupled and complex phenomena, (b) a rapidly evolving technology
(moving target), and (c) the success with eliminating actual corrosion issues.
Challenges to satisfy this need along with new emerging engineering-level problems
will certainly continue well into the future as dimensions continue to shrink, more
susceptible materials such as copper are used, and higher service life and reliability
are demanded.
Corrosion of Data Storage Devices 677
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19
Organic Coatings
J. H. W. de Wit
Netherlands Institute for Metals Science, Delft University of Technology, Delft,
and Corus Research and Development, Ijmuiden, The Netherlands
D. H. van der Weijde
Corus Research and Development, Ijmuiden, The Netherlands
G. Ferrari
TNO Industrie, Den Helder, The Netherlands
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Construction metals are expected to have excellent mechanical properties and
machinability at a low price, while at the same time they should be corrosion
resistant. These properties can seldom be met in one and the same material.
Separating the base metal with good mechanical properties from the corrosive
surrounding by applying a surface layer can solve this problem. These layers can be:
1. Metallic layers
2. Nonmetallic inorganic layers such as conversion layers, anodized layers, some
ceramic chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and physical vapor deposition
(PVD) layers, and enamel layers
3. Organic layers such as paints, lacquers, and polymer sheets
In this chapter we will discuss organic layers. The use of organic coatings for
the protection of metals against corrosion is widespread in building, construction,
food packaging, automotive, and marine applications. For these applications, typical
and mostly successful types are developed. The choice of coating also depends on the
type of substrate—steel, galvanized steel, or aluminum—combined with specific
surface treatments. Evaluation of coating quality on site on a ship, a building, a
car, or structural steelworks normally takes place when visible deterioration or
defects occur. Moreover, apart from cleaning schedules, coating maintenance is
usually a matter of planned repainting or unexpected repair when the coating fails.
The development of coatings is mainly based on years of experience and
accelerated testing in salt fog and humidity chambers, Q-UV, Weather-O-meters,
Kesternich, etc. The conditions in these tests are based on the physical or chemical
load in practice that is assumed to be the most important, and moreover the load is
683
Copyright © 2002 Marcel Dekker, Inc.