Lyons W.C. (ed.). Standard handbook of petroleum and natural gas engineering.2001- Volume 1
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References
495
Figure
3-83.
Multistage
axial-flow
compressor
[26].
of their small diameter, their machines
are
principal compressor design for jet engine
applications. There are some applications for axial-f low compressors for large process
plant operations where very large constant volumetric flowrates are needed.
More detail regarding axial flow compressors may be found in other references
[
22,261.
REFERENCES
Prime
Movers
1.
Kutz,
M.,
Mechanical Enginem’Handbook,
Twelfth Edition, John Wiley and Sons,
2.
“API Specification for Internal-Combustion Reciprocating Engines for Oil-Field
3.
“API Recommended Practice for Installation, Maintenance, and Operation of
4.
Atlas Copco Manual,
Fourth Edition, 1982.
5.
Baumeister,
T.,
Marks’
Standad
Handbook
for
Mechanical En@nem,
Seventh Edition,
6.
Moore,
W.
W.,
Fundamentals of Rotary Drilling,
Energy Publications,
1981.
7.
“NEMA Standards, Motors and Generators,” ANSI/NEMA Standards Publication,
8.
Greenwood,
D.
G.,
Mechanical
Power
Tranmissions,
McCraw-Hill Book Co., New
9.
Libby,
C.
C.
Motor Section and Application,
McCraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1960.
10. Fink,
D.
G.,
and Beaty,
H.
W.,
Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers,
Eleventh
Power Transmission
New York, 1986.
Service,” API STD 7B-llC, Eighth Edition, March 1981.
Internal-Combustion Engines,” API RP 7C-1 lF, Fourth Edition, April 1981.
McCraw-Hill Book
Co.,
New York, 1979.
NO.
MG1-1978.
York, 1962.
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1983.
11. Hindhede,
U.,
et al,
Machine Design Fundamentals,
J.
Wiley and Sons, New
York,
12.
“API Specifications for Oil-Field V-Belting,” API Spec
lB,
Fifth Edition, March
13.
Faulkner,
L.
L.,
and Menkes,
S.
B.,
Chainsfor
Power
Transmission and Materials
1983.
1978.
Handling,
Marcel Dekker,
New
York, 1982.
496
Auxiliary Equipment
14. “Heavy
Duty
Offset Sidebar Power Transmission Roller Chain and Sprocket Teeth,“
15. “Inverted Tooth (Silent) Chains and Sprocket Teeth,” ANSI Standard
B
29.2M-
16. “API Specifications for Oil Field Chain and Sprockets,” API Spec.
7E,
Fourth
ANSI Standard
B
29.1, 29.10M-1981.
1982.
Edition, February 1980.
Pumps
17.
Karassik,
I.
J.,
et
al.,
Pump Handbook,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1976.
18.
Matley,
J.,
Fluid
Movers;
Pump CompressorS, Fans and
Blowers,
McGraw-Hill Book
19. Gatlin, C.,
Petroleum Engineering: Drilling and Well Completions,
Prentice-Hall,
20. Hicks,
T.
G.,
Standard
Handbook
of
Enginem’ng Calculations,
Second Edition, McGraw-
21. Bourgoyne,
A.
T.,
et al.,
Applied Drilling Engineering,
SPE, 1986.
22.
Hydraulics Institute Standards
for
Centrifugal, Rotary, and Reciprocating Pumps,
Compressors
23. Brown,
R.
N.,
Compressom: Selection and Ski%
Gulf Publishing, 1986.
24.
Burghardt,
M.
D.,
Engineering
Thermodynamics
with
Applications,
Harper
and
Row,
25. Loomis,
A.
W.,
Cmpesed Air and
Gas
Data,
Ingersoll-Rand Company, Third Edition,
26. Pichot,
P.,
Compressor
Application Engineering;
Vol.
1:
Compression Equipment,
Gulf
27. Pichot,
P.,
Compressor Application Engineering
Vol. 2:
Drivers
for Rotating Equipment,
Co., New York, 1979.
Englewood Cliffs, 1960.
Hill Book Co., New York, 1985.
Fourteenth Edition, 1983.
Second Edition, New York, 1982.
1980.
Publishing, 1986.
Gulf Publishing, 1986.
Drilling and
Well
Completions
Frederick E. Beck, Ph.D.
ARC0 Alaska
Anchorage, Alaska
Daniel E. Boone
Consultant, Petroleum Engineering
Houston, Texas
Robert DesBrandes, Ph.D.
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Phillip
W.
Johnson, Ph.D., P.E.
University
of
Alabama
Tuscaloosa, Alabama
William
C.
Lyons,
Ph.D., P.E.
New Mexico Institute
of
Mining and Technology
Socorro, New Mexico
Stefan Miska, Ph.D.
University of Tulsa
Tulsa, Oklahoma
Abdul Mujeeb
Henkels
&
McCoy, Inc.
Blue Bell, Pennsylvania
Charles Nathan, Ph.D., P.E.
Consultant, Corrosion Engineering
Houston, Texas
Chris
S.
Russell, P.E.
Consultant, Environmental Engineering
Las Cruces,
New
Mexico
Ardeshir
K.
Shahraki, Ph.D.
Dwight’s Energy Data, Inc.
Richardson, Texas
Andrzej
K.
Wojtanowicz, Ph.D.,
P.E.
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Derricks
and
Portable
Masts
.................................................................
499
Standard Derricks
501.
Load Capacities
506.
Design Loadings
508.
Design Specifications
51 1.
Maintenance and Use
of
Drilling and Well Servicing Structures
515.
Derrick Efficiency Factor
521.
Hoisting Systems
...................................................................................
523
Drawworks
525.
Drilling and Production Hoisting Equipment
530.
Inspection
540.
Hoist Tool
Inspection and Maintenance Procedures
542.
Wire Rope
544.
Rotary Eauipment
.................................................................................
616
Mud
Pumps
...........................................................................................
627
Swivel and Rotary Hose
616.
Drill-Stem Subs
619.
Kelly
620.
Rotary Table and Bushings
622.
Pump Installation
627.
Pump Operation
630.
Pump Performance Charts
631.
Mud Pump
Hydraulics
631.
Useful Formulas
645.
Drilling Muds
and
Completion Systems
...............................................
650
Testing
of
Drilling Fluids
652.
Composition and Applications
664.
Oil-Based Mud Systems
675.
Environmental Aspects
682.
Typical Calculations in Mud Engineering
687.
Solids Control
691.
Mud-Related Hole Problems
695.
Completion and Workover Fluids
701.
Drill
String:
Composition
and
Design
..................................................
715
Drill Collar
716.
Drill Pipe
735.
Tool Joints
748.
Heavy-Weight Drill Pipe
749.
Fatigue Damage
of
Drill Pipe
763.
Drill String Design
765.
Drilling Bits
and
Downhole
Tools
........................................................
769
Classification of Drilling Bits
769.
Roller Rock Bit
771.
Bearing Design
774.
Tooth Design
776.
Steel Tooth Bit Selection
783.
Diamond Bits
789.
IADC Fixed Cutter Bit Classification System
801.
Downhole Tools
812.
Shock Absorbers
813.
Jars. Underreamen
819.
Stabilizers
823.
497
498
Drilling
and
Well
Completions
Drilling Mud Hydraulics
....................................................
.
..................
829
Rheological Classification of Drilling Fluids
829.
Flow Regimes
830.
Principle of Additive
Pressures
834.
Friction Pressure Loss Calculations
836.
Pressure Loss Through Bit Nozzles
839.
Air
and
Gas
Drilling
.............................................................................
840
Types of Operations
840.
Equipment
844.
Well Completion
847.
Well Control
852.
Air, Gas, and
Unstable Foam Calculations
853.
Downhole Motors...................
...............................................................
862
MWD
and
LWD
.....................................................................................
901
Turbine Motors
863.
Positive Displacement Motor
882.
Special Applications
899.
MWD Technology
901.
Directional Drilling Parameters
954.
Safety Parameters
961.
LWD
Technology
971.
Gamma and Ray Logs
971.
Resistivity Logs
974.
Neutron-Density Logs
985.
Measuring While Tripping: Wiper Logs
999.
Measurements at the Bit
1002.
Basic Log
Interpretation
1005.
Drilling Mechanics
1015.
Abnormal Pressure Detection
1036.
Drilling Safety,
Kick Alert
1067.
Horizontal Drilling, Geosteering
1070.
Comparison of LWD Logs with Wireline
Logs
1077.
Comparison of MWD Data with Other Drilling Data
1078.
Directional Drilling
..............................................................................
1079
Glossary
1079.
Dogleg Severity (Hole Curvature) Calculations
1083.
Deflection
Tool
Orientation
1085.
ThreeDimensional Deflecting Model
1088.
Selection
of
Drilling Practices
.............................................................
1090
Factors Affecting Drilling Rates
1090.
Selection of Weight on Bit, Rotary Speed, and Drilling
Time
1091.
Selection of Optimal Nozzle Size and Mud Flowrate
1097.
Well
Pressure Control
..........................................................
.
...............
1100
Surface Equipment
1101.
When and How to Close the Well
1101.
Gas-Cut Mud
1103.
The Closed
Well
1105.
Kick Control Procedures
1106.
Maximum Casing/Borehole Pressure
11 11.
Fishing Operations and Equipment
...................................................
1113
Casing and Casing String Design
........................................................
1127
Causes and Prevention
1114.
Fishing Tools
11 15.
Free Point
1124.
Types of Casing
1127.
Casing Program Design
1128.
Casing Data
1132.
Elements
of
Threads
1141.
Collapse Pressure
1147.
Internal Yield Pressure
1155.
Joint Strength
1156.
Combination Casing
Strings
1157.
Running and Pulling Casing
1164.
Well Cementing
...................................................................................
1177
Cementing Principles
1179.
Properties of Cement Slurry
1183.
Cement Additives
1193.
Primary Cementing
1200.
*Diameter Casing Cementing
1211.
Multistage Casing
Cementing
1216.
Secondary Cementing
1223.
Squeeze Cementing
1224.
Plug Cementing
1228.
Tubing and Tubing String Design
.......................................................
1233
API Physical Property Specification
1233.
Dimension, Weights, and Lengths
1233.
Running
and Pulling Tubing
1239.
Selection of Wall thickness and Steel Grade
of
Tubing
1251.
Tubing
Elongation/Contraction
1252.
Packer--Tubing Force
1254.
Permanent Corkscrewing
1257.
Corrosion and Scaling
.........................................................................
1257
Corrosion Theory
1259.
Forms
of
Corrosion Attack
1268.
Factors Influencing Corrosion
Rate
1292.
Corrodents in Drilling Fluids
1300.
Corrosion Monitoring and Equipment Inspec-
tions
1312.
Corrosion Control
1323.
Recommended Practices
1340.
Environmental Considerations
.........................
. .
.
.............................
..
.1343
Offshore Operations
............................................................................
1363
References
............................................................................................
1373
Site Assessment and Construction
1344.
Environmental Concerns While in Operation
1352.
Drilling Vessels
1357.
Marine Riser Systems.
1359.
Casing Programs
1361.
Well Control
1363.
-
Drilling and
Well
Completions
DERRICKS AND PORTABLE MASTS
Derricks and portable masts provide the clearance and structural support
necessary for raising and lowering drill pipe, casing, rod strings, etc., during
drilling and servicing operations. Standard derricks are bolted together
at
the
well site, and are considered nonportable. Portable derricks, which do not
require full disassembly for transport, are termed masts.
The derrick
or
mast must be designed to safely carry all loads that are likely
to be used during the structure’s life
[l].
The largest vertical dead load that
will likely be imposed on the structure is the heaviest casing string run into the
borehole. However, the largest vertical load imposed on the structure will result
from pulling equipment (Le., drill string
or
casing string) stuck in the borehole.
The most accepted method is to design
a
derrick
or
mast that can carry a dead
load well beyond the maximum casing load expected. This can be accomplished
by utilizing the safety factor.
The derrick or mast must also be designed to withstand wind loads. Wind
loads are imposed by the wind acting on the outer and inner surfaces of the
open structure. When designing for wind loads, the designer must consider that
the drill pipe
or
other tubulars may be out of the hole and stacked in the
structure. This means that there will be loads imposed on the structure by the
pipe weight (i.e., setback load) in addition to the additional loads imposed by
the wind. The horizontal forces due to wind
are
counteracted
by
the lattice
structure that
is
firmly secured to the structure’s foundation. Additional support
to the structure can be accomplished by the guy lines attached to the structure
and to a dead man anchor some distance away from it. The dead man anchor
is buried in the ground to firmly support the tension loads in the guy line. The
guy lines are pretensioned when attached to the dead man anchor.
The API Standard
4F,
First Edition, May
1,
1985,
“API Specifications for
Drilling and Well Servicing Structures,” was written to provide suitable steel
structures for drilling and well servicing operations and to provide a uniform
method
of
rating the structures for the petroleum industry. API Standard 4F
supersedes API Standards 4A,
4D,
and
4E
thus, many structures in service today
may not satisfy all of the requirements of API Standard
4F
[2-51.
For
modern derrick and mast designs, API
Standard
4F
is the authoritative source
of
information, and much of this section is extracted directly from this standard.
Drilling and well servicing structures that meet the requirements of API Standard
4F
are
identified by
a
nameplate
securely
affixed
to
the structure in
a
conspicuous
place. The nameplate markings convey at least the following information:
Mast and Derrick Nameplate Information
a. Manufacturer’s name
b. Manufacturer’s address
c.
Specification
4F
d. Serial number
499
500
Drilling and Well Completions
e. Height in feet
f.
Maximum rated static hook load in pounds, with guy lines
if
applicable,
for stated number of lines to traveling block
g. Maximum rated wind velocity in knots, with guy lines if applicable, with
rated capacity of pipe racked
h. The API specification and edition
of
the API specification under which
the structure was designed and manufactured
i. Manufacturer’s guying diagram-for structures as applicable
j.
Caution: Acceleration or impact, also setback and wind loads will reduce
the maximum rated static hook load capacity
k. Manufacturer’s load distribution diagram (which may be placed in mast
instructions)
1.
Graph of maximum allowable static hook load versus wind velocity
m.Mast setup distance for mast with guy lines.
Substructure Nameplate information
a. Manufacturer’s name
b. Manufacture’s address
c. Specification
4F
d. Serial number
e. Maximum rated static rotary capacity
f. Maximum rated pipe setback capacity
g.
Maximum combined rated static rotary and rated setback capacity
h. API specification and edition under which the structure was designed and
manufactured.
The manufacturer of structures that satisfy API Standard
4F
must also furnish
the purchaser with one set of instructions that covers operational features, block
reeving diagram, and lubrication points for each drilling or well servicing
structure. Instructions should include the raising and lowering of the mast and
a
facsimile of the API nameplate.
Definitions and Abbreviations
Definitions
The following terms are commonly used in discussing derricks and masts:
Crown
block
assembly:
The stationary sheave or block assembly installed at the
top of
a
derrick or mast.
Derrick:
A semipermanent structure of square
or
rectangular cross-section having
members that are latticed or trussed on all four sides. This unit must be
assembled in the vertical or operation position, as it includes no erection
mechanism.
It
may or may not be guyed.
Design load:
The force or combination of forces that
a
structure is designed to
withstand without exceeding the allowable stress in any member.
Dynamic loading:
The loading imposed upon a structure as a result of motion
as opposed to static loading.
Qnamic
stress:
The varying or fluctuating stress occurring
in
a
structural member
as a result of dynamic loading.
Erection load:
The load produced in the mast and its supporting structure during
the raising and lowering operation.
Derricks and Portable Masts
501
Guy line:
A wire rope with one end attached to the derrick or mast assembly
and the other end attached to a suitable anchor.
Guying pattern:
A plane view showing the manufacturer’s recommended loca-tions
and distance to the anchors with respect to the wellhead.
Height
of
derrick and mast without
guy
lines:
The minimum clear vertical distance
from the top of the working floor to the bottom of the crown block
support beams.
Height
of
mast with guy lines:
The minimum vertical distance from the ground
to the bottom of the crown block support beams.
Impact loading:
The loading resulting from sudden changes in the motion state
of rig components.
Mast:
A structural tower comprising one or more sections assembled in a
horizontal position near the ground and then raised to the operating position.
If the unit contains two or more sections, it may be telescoped or unfolded
during the erection.
Mast setup distam:
The distance from
the
centerline of the well to a designated point
on the mast structure defined by a manufacturer to assist in the setup of the rig.
Maximum rated static hook load:
The sum of the weight applied at the hook and
the traveling equipment for the designated location of the
dead
line anchor
and the specified number
of
drilling lines without any pipe setback, sucker
rod,
or
wind loadings.
Pipe lean:
The angle between the vertical and a typical stand of pipe
with
the setback.
Racking platform:
A platform located at a distance above the working floor for
Rated static rotary load:
The maximum weight being supported by the rotary table
Rated setback load:
The maximum weight of tubular goods that the substructure
Rod board.
A platform located at a distance above the working floor for supporting
Static hook load:
see
Maximum Rated Static Hook Load.
laterally supporting the upper end of racked pipe.
support beams.
can withstand in the setback area.
rods.
Abbreviations
The following standard abbreviations are used throughout this section.
ABS-American Bureau of Shipping
AISC-American Institute of Steel Construction
AISI-American Iron
and
Steel Institute
ANSI-American National Standard Institute
API-American Petroleum Institute
ASA-American Standards Association
ASTM-American Society for Testing and Materials
AWS-American Welding Society
IADC-International Association of Drilling Contractors
SAE-Society of Automotive Engineers
USAS-United States of America Standard (ANSI)
RP-Recommended Practice
Standard
Derricks
A standard derrick is a structure
of
square cross-section that dimensionally
agrees with
a
derrick size shown in Table
41
with dimensions as designated in
Figure
41.
v
C..
F
i
Table
4-1
Derrick Sizes and General Dimensions
[2]
09
1
2 3
4
5
6 7
V
Window
Gin
Pole
Derrick Height Base Square Window Opening Opening Opening Clearance
Size
No.
A
B
C
C
D
E
ft in. ft
in.
ft in.
Nominal Draw
works
ft
in. ft in.
ft
in.
10-
11
12
16
18
18A
19
20
25
~~
a00
87
0
94
0
122
0
136
0
136
0
140
0
147
0
189
0
~
20
0
20
0
24
0
24
0
26
0
30
0
30
0
30
0
37
6
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
23
8
23
8
23
8
23
8
23 8
23
8
26 6
26 6
26 6
~
56
56
56
56
56
56
76
66
76
80
00
80
80
12
0
12
0
17
0
17
0
17
0
Tolerances:
A,
f
6
in.;
B,
f
5
in.; C,
+
3
ft..
6
in.:
D.
f
2
in.:
E.
k
6
in.
Derricks and Portable Masts
503
c
I
A
A
-
The vartical distance from the top
of
the base plate to
I
-
Tha distance betwaan hael
to
heel of adidcant
lags
et the
C
-
The window opaninq measured In the clear and parallel to
D
-
The
sm+st
clear dimension at the top
of
the derrick
E
-
The eiaarence between
the
horixontal header
of
the pin
the bottom
of
the crown block sumport beam.
top
of
the base plate.
tha center
line
of
the derrick ride from top of base plate.
that would restrict
passage
of
crown block.
poi. and
the
top
of
tha crown support beam.
Flgure
4-1.
Derrick
dimensions
[2].
Derrick Window
The derrick window arrangement types
A,
C.
D, and
E,
shown in Figure
4-2,
shall be interchangeable. The sizes and general dimensions
of
the
V
window
opening and drawworks window opening are given in Tables
4-1
and
4-2.
Foundation
Bolt
Settings
Foundation bolt sizes and patterns are shown in Figure
4-3.
Minimum bolt
sizes are used and should be increased if stresses dictate larger diameter. The
(text
conrinucd
on page
506)
504
Drilling and Well Completions
V-
Window
TYPE
A
Drawworks Window
TYPE
D
M
Ora
w
wor
ks
Window
TYPE
C
Ladder Window
TYPE E
Figure
4-2.
Derrick
windows
[2].
Table
4-2
Conversion
Values
(For
0-50
Ft.
Helght)
[2]
Wind
Velocity
Pressure
P
vk
Wind
Velocity
Lb./Sq.
Ft.
Knots
Miles
Per
Hour
10
49
56
15 60 69
20
69 79
25
77 89
30
84
97
35
91 105
40 97 112
45
103 119
50
109 125
55
114 131