Jung Han. Innovations in Food Packaging

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488

Innovations in Food Packaging

to other polyamides (PA) in use. The oxygen permeability at 20°C of biaxially oriented

MXD6 increases by a factor of -3.3, whereas nylon 6, a PA, increases by

factor of

-7

at 70 and 100%

RH.

MXD6 is five times less permeable than nylon 6 when the

low, and twelve times less permeable when the

is 75% (Brown, 1992). Liquid crys-

tals of PET (LCP) have high barrier properties to gas transmission. They have recently

been produced in pilot plant quantities to test their strength and high heat resistance

(Brown, 1992). New materials have been incorporated with inorganic-organic nanocom-

posites, giving high toughness and hardness measurements, and these can tremendously

decrease the gas and moisture transmission rates (Ruan, 2000). These materials need to

be examined for their suitability for use as food packaging materials.

Packaging for non-thermal food processing

Aseptic food packaging is effective for producing shelf-stable food products that have

many advantages over conventionally processed products (Barbosa-Canovas

et al.,

1999). Aseptic technology has been used for foods for more

than

30 years (Singh and

Nelson, 1992). Packaging materials for aseptic packaging have no limitations on con-

tainer size, and do not need to withstand high temperatures as in conventional pro-

cessing methods (Singh and Nelson, 1992). Plastic- and paper-laminated materials

are widely used as packaging materials for aseptic food packaging. Aseptically pack-

aged foods may be stored at refrigerated or ambient temperatures, depending on the

type of foods. The effectiveness of aseptic packaging of several PEF processed foods

has been demonstrated (Qin

et al., 1995b; Zhang

al., 1997; Yeom et al., 2000).

Plastic packaging materials have been used for non-thermal processing. Those

materials used for foods processed by PEF, high-pressure, and irradiation are listed in

Table 27.2.

PEF

Ayhan et al. (2001) investigated the effects of packaging materials on the quality of

orange juice treated by a pilot plant-scale PEF system at 35 kVIcm for 59 ps. The PEF-

treated orange juice was put into four different packaging materials; sanitized glass, PET,

high-density polyethylene (HDPE) bottles, and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) bottles,

inside a sanitized glove box. They reported that glass and PET bottles were effective in

maintaining flavor compounds and

vitamin

C, as well as the color of PEF-treated orange

juice during storage at 4°C for 112 days. They suggested that this might be due to the

higher oxygen-barrier properties of glass and PET compared to PE (Ayhan

et al., 2001).

Min

et al. (2003a) observed that the losses of lycopene of thermally processed, PEF-

processed and untreated tomato juices in PP tubes were most significant during the first

7 days of storage at 4OC, regardless of the processing method. The stability of carotenoids

in foods depends on the packaging conditions and the oxygen availability, since the main

cause of carotenoid degradation is oxidation (Rodriguez-Amaya, 1993; Thakur

et al.,

1996). The significant reduction of lycopene during early storage may be due to the high

Table

27.2

Packaging materials for foods processed by pulsed electric fields, high pressure, and irradiation

Processing

method

Packaging maten'i

PEF Orange juice, a protein 200 ml thermoformed plastic

fortified fruit beverage container, glass bottle

Cranberry juice Glass vials sealed with small

headspace

Apple juice and apple cider, Materials: base material, HIPS/

orange juice, cranberry

PVDCJLDPE (Allista Plastic

juice, chocolate milk Packaging Co., Muncie, IN); lid

material, Nylon/AI/LDPE (Rollprint,

Addison, IL). Thermoforming. Size

of thermoformed plastic container:

apple juice and cider, 180 ml; orange

juice, cranberryjuice, chocolate

milk, 200 ml

Orange juice

500 ml glass, PET, LDPE, HDPE

bottles kith 28 mm PP caps (glass,

PET, HDPE

General Bottles

Supply Co., Los Angeles, CA; LDPE

Consolidated Plastic Co.,

Twinsburg, OH)

Tomato juice, orange

50 ml pre-sterilized PP tubes

juice (Corning, Acton, MA)

HPP Kimchi (Korean fermented PE bag

vegetable product)

Orange juice

Plastic bag with EVOH

Sliced cooked ham PE/Nylon pouches

Orange juice 500 ml PET bottle

Packaging methoc

and

storage

temperature

Thermo-forming and -sealing

using an aseptic packaging

machine, sterilized by heat

and H202, Storage at 4°C

Storage at 4 and 20-24OC

Thermoforming and thermosealing

using an aseptic packaging machine,

sterilized by heat and H202. Storage

temperature: apple juice and cider,

cranberryjuice, chocolate milk, 4,22

and 37OC; orange juice, cranberry

juice, chocolate milk,

and 22°C

Packed in a glove box, sanitized by

H202 and UV. Storage at 4 and 2Z°C

Packed in a glove box, sanitized by

H202 and UV. Storage at 4OC

Heat sealing without entrapping any

air bubbles. Storage in ice water

Storage at 0 and 1 O°C

Vacuum sealing. Storage at 3 and g0C

Storage at 4OC

Orange juice, Qiu etal. (1998);

a protein fortified fruit beverage,

Sharma et a/. (1 998)

Jin and Zhang (1999)

Apple juice and cider, Evrendilek eta

(2000); orange juice, Yeom etal.

(2000); cranberryjuice, chocolate

milk, Evrendileketal. (2001)

Ayhan etal. (2001)

Tomato juice, Min etal. (2003a);

orange juice, Min etal. (2003b)

Sohn and Lee (1 998)

Takahashi etal. (1 998)

Carpi et a/. (1 999)

Goodner et al.

999)

(Continue6

Table

27.2

(Continued)

Processing

method

Food

Packaging material

Packaging method

and storage

temperature

Source.

Pork sausage

Nylon/PE bag (0.75 mil nylon,

2.27 mil PE)

Vacuum sealing. Storage at 4°C

Murano

eta/.

(1 999)

(Koch supplies, Inc., Kansas

City, MO)

Low-fat yogurt

Guacamole

250 ml PE bottle

Chilled storage

Ancos

et aL

(2000)

Palou

eta/.

(2000)

Plastic whirl-pak sampling bags

(Nasco, Fort Atkinson, WI)

Heat sealing. Storage at

5, 15, and 25 (*0.5)OC

Salsa

PE bag

Storage at 4

and 21-23OC

Raghubeer

et a/.

(2000)

Orange juice,

orange-lemon-carrot

juice

Glass, PP, teflon, and Barex 21 0

(modified acetonitrile-methyl

acrylate copolymers) flasks or

PE pouches

Flasks were closed by screw lids.

PE pouches were heat sealed.

Storage at

4°C

Garcia

et aL

(2001)

Orange juice

HPP: Nylon-EVA pouches (Winpak

Storage at 4,15,26, and 37OC

Nienaber and Shellhammer

(2001

)

Ltd., Winnipeg, Canada)

Shelf life study: 8 oz PET bottle with

screw-cap closure (Novapak Corp.,

Hazelton, PA)

Orange juice

Fatty duck liver

250 ml PE bottle

Storage at 4OC

Ancos

eta/.

(2002)

Cruz

eta/.

(2003)

PA/PE/EVOH/PE, PA/PP/€VOH/

PP, PE/PA/PE, PET/AI/PE films

(Soplaril, Elf-Atochem,

Dax,

France)

Turkey meat

Potato

Laminated PE-PA foil (Multiseven-80)

Storage at

4°C

Tuboly

et a/.

(2003)

Ziegler

et a/.

(1 968)

Irradiation

Steel tray, covered with a plastic film

Controlled atmosphere storage

(0.03,0.5, 5, and 15% (v/v) C02

in air)

Precooked lobster

mil mylar/saran/PE bags, wrapped in

PE bags

Dagbjartsson and Solberg

(1 973)

Ch~cken meat

Air

packaging

LDPE. Vacuum Storage at 5°C Calenberg

et a/.

(1 999)

packaging

unplasticized bags of

PA and PE (UPA/PE 15-60, Sudpack

Verpackungen, Germany)

Pork patties, meats,

Air packaging

PE bag (2 mil, Storage at 4°C Pork patties, Ahn

etal.

(1 998);

turkey breast meat Associated Bag Company, Milwaukee, meats, Kim

etal.

(2002);

WI). Vacuum packaging

Nylon/PE turkey breast meat, Nam

(Koch, Kansas City, MO) and Ahn (2002)

Cooked pork sausages Nylon/PE bag (Koch, Kansas City, MO) Storage at 4°C Jo

eta/.

(2000)

Ground beef

(1)

Nylon/PE bags (Koch Supplies, Inc., Storage at S°C Lopez-Gonzalez

a/.

(2000)

patties Kansas City, MO), consisting of 0.75 mil

nylon and 2.25 mil PE, with a moisture

transmission rate of 0.73 dl00 in2

24 h atm and oxygen permeability of

3.9 cc/100 in2 24 h atm. (2) Saran/

polyester/PE bags (Koch Supplies, Inc.,

Kansas City, MO), consisting of a top

layer of 0.48 mil Saran

2 ml PE, and a

bottom layer of 2 mil PE

0.48 metallized

polyester, with a moisture transmission

rate of 0.22 dl00 in2 24 h atm and

oxygen permeability of 0.49 cc/l00 in2

24 h atm.

(3)

Saran film overwrap (Dow

Brands, Indianapolis, IN) plus a Styrofoam

tray (Albertson's College Station,

TX)

the bottom, with Saran having a moisture

transmission rate of 0.45 dl00 in2

24 h atm and an oxygen permeability

of l.Occ/lOO in2 24h atm.

Bags were sealed in air using a model

CE95 modified atmosphere packaging

machine (Koch Supplies, Inc., Kansas

City, MO)

Chicken meat

Air packaging

PE bag. Vacuum Storage at 4OC

Lee

et a/.

(2001

)

packaging

PVDC film (Cryovac,

Duncan, SC)

PEF, pulsed electric fields; HPP, high-pressure processing; PE, polyethylene; NOH, ethylene vinyl alcohol; PA, polyamide; LDPE, low-density polyethylene; HIPS, high-

impact polystyrene; PVDC, polyvinylidene chloride; Al, aluminum; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; HDPE, high-density polyethylene; PP, polypropylene;

EVA,

ethylene

vinyl

acetate.

492

Innovations in Food Packaging

oxygen availability in the headspace of the PP tubes. Modified atmosphere packaging

(MAP),

which limits oxygen in the headspace, may be applied as a complement to PEF,

to reduce oxidation and maintain high freshness in PEF processed foods.

HPP

Foods that are treated by HPP are generally first packaged and then placed in a pressure

chamber. Therefore, it is important to study the effect of HPP on packaging materials.

Masuda

al.

(1992) reported that water vapor and oxygen permeabilities of

several laminated plastic films, (PP/EVOWPP, orientated polypropylene (0PP)l

PVOWPE, KOPIcast polypropylene (CPP), and PETIAYCPP) were not affected by

high pressures at 400-600 MPa. It was demonstrated that packaging materials consti-

tuted with EVOH and polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) are compatible with high-pressure

treatments.

Caner

al.

(2000) reported that metallized PET was the only film with a significant

increase in permeabilities to oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor among the eight

high-barrier laminated films tested (PET/SiO,/polyurethane (PU) adhesive/LDPE,

PETIAl2O3/PU adhesive/LDPE, PET/PVDC/NylonlHDPE/PP, PE/Nylon/EVOWPE,

PE/Nylon/PE, PETlethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), PP, and metallized PET) after a

high-pressure process at 600-800 MPa.

Kubel

al.

(1996) investigated the effect of HPP on the absorption of aroma com-

pounds, p-cyrnene and acetophenone, into plastic films. They found that the absorp-

tion of the aroma compounds was lower in films exposed to 5OOMPa pressure

compared to non-pressurized films. The transition of the plastic films to the glassy

state at higher pressures was suggested as the reason for the decrease in absorption of

the aroma compounds. Masuda

al.

(1 992) also reported a decrease in the absorption

of d-limonene into LDPE and EVA films as a result of HPP at 400 MPa for 10 minutes.

Lambert

et al.

(2000) presented important aspects of packaging materials for HPP

in terms of package properties (barriers and flexibility) and package integrity. HPP

was carried out at 200, 350 and 5OOMPa for 30 minutes at ambient temperatures.

They compared the performance of pressurized multi-layer packaging materials with

that of untreated materials. A cast-co-extruded 100 pm PAIgluelfree radical linear PE

(40 pd20 pd40 pm) was found to be incompatible with high-pressure treatments,

mainly due to delamination. The other packaging materials, a tubular-co-extruded

100 pm PA/glue/medium density PE (20 pd10 pd70 pm), a cast-co-extruded 100 pm

PAIgluelfree radical linear PE (30 pd10 pd60 pm), a 65 pm PETlglue/PVDC/glue/

free radical linear PE (12 pdl pdl pdl pd50 pm), a 110 pm PA/glue/PE surlyn

(40 pd15 pd55 pm) and a 1 10 pm PA/PP/glue/free radical linear PE (30 pd

10 pd60 pm), did not show any significant changes in tensile strength, heat-seal

strength and laminations after HPP. Barrier properties (oxygen and moisture) of tested

materials were not significantly changed after HPP.

Garcia

al.

(2001) evaluated the antioxidative capacities, the nutrient contents and

the sensory properties of orange juice and orange-lemon-carrot (OLC) juice in dif-

ferent packaging materials after HPP and during storage. Juices were packaged in

glass,

PP,

Teflon, and Barex 2 10 (modified acetonitrile-methyl acrylate copolymers)

Packaging for non-thermal food processing

493

flasks (0.5 1 in volume) or in PE pouches covered by aluminum foil. The flasks were

closed by screw lids, and the PE pouches were heat-sealed. HPP and storage for

2 1 days at 4OC did not cause any significant differences in the antioxidative capacity and

in the vitamin C, sugar, and carotene contents. They studied the effects of HPP and the

effects of packaging materials on the sensory properties using the triangular test tech-

nique. Results from the sensory evaluation indicated that the odor and flavor of pres-

surized orange juice were occasionally altered by HPP and cultivars, but not by the

packaging materials.

Cruz

al. (2003) packaged fatty duck liver in four different multi-layer films,

PA/PE/EVOH/PE, PA/PP/EVOWPP, PEPAPE, and PETlAlJPE films (Soplaril, Elf-

Atochem, Dax, France), and applied HPP to the packaged fatty duck liver. The

PETIAVPE films showed mechanical damages after

HPI?

The PA/PE/EVOH/PE and

PAIPPlEVOWPP films were durable after HPP. The barrier properties to oxygen

transmission were not affected by the HPP treatment.

Irradiation

Foods are generally pre-packaged before irradiation to prevent recontamination

(Sahasrabudhe, 1990).

The impact of irradiation on the packaging materials must be considered, and any

packaging materials must be accepted by the FDA before use in food irradiation, since

gases and low molecular weight polymers formed during irradiation have the potential to

migrate into the product and to influence the product quality (Lee

al., 1996; Olson,

1998). Irradiation of packaging materials may generate gases, such as hydrogen, and

may produce low molecular weight hydrocarbons and halogenated polymers (Kilcast,

1990). Packaging materials for irradiated foods should not transmit toxic substances

and undesirable odors or flavors to foods (Barbosa-Canovas

al., 1998). Materials for

irradiation are listed in 2 1 CFR 179.45.

Some chemical and physical properties of plastic materials can be changed as a

result of irradiation (Ozen and Floros, 2001). Irradiation can lead to cross-linking and

chain scission of polymers. The changes in the polymers by irradiation depend on the

composition of the plastic materials and the conditions of irradiation. Cross-linking is

the predominant reaction during irradiation in most plastic packaging materials,

including PE,

PP,

and PS. Cross-linking can decrease elongation, crystallinity, and

solubility, and increase the mechanical strength of the plastic materials. Chain scis-

sion decreases the chain length of plastic materials, and thus provides free volume in

the materials (Ozen and Floros, 2001). For example, cellulose undergoes chain scis-

sion under irradiation, resulting in the loss of mechanical properties (Buchalla

al.,

1993). Free radicals formed during irradiation can be trapped in the polymers in the

crystalline regions. This may also change the mechanical properties of plastic materi-

als (Buchalla

al., 1993).

The degree of crystallinity of LDPE, HDPE, PP, PET, PVC and PVDC was not

changed after irradiation at 8 kGy (Varsanyi, 1975). The structures of LDPE and OPP

were significantly changed at 10-50 kGy. Carbon dioxide and the number of double

nnovations in Food Packaging

bonds increased in the polymer structures at 100 kGy. Oxygen permeabilities of LDPE

and OPP films were not significantly changed after irradiation at up to 25 kGy (Rojas

De Gante and Pascat, 1990). Pilette (1 990) reported that oxygen and water vapor per-

meabilities of PE pouches were not changed after irradiation with y-photons (60~o)

and accelerated electrons.

Kim

and Gilbert (1991) reported that oxygen permeability

of glycol modified PETIPVDCPE laminate decreased significantly after 60~o treat-

ment. Pentimalli

al. (2000) studied the effects of y-irradiation on the structures and

the mechanical properties of PS, poly-butadiene, styrene-acrylonitrile, high-impact

polystyrene, and

acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene

using NMR. They found that PS sam-

ples did not show any detectable differences after 100 kGy irradiation, and concluded

that PS was the best material, among the tested plastics, for packaging for irradiation.

The effects of irradiation on the characteristics of the diffusion and the absorption

of octan, ethyl hexanoate, and d-limonene were investigated by Matsui

al. (1991).

With increasing radiation dose, diffusion coefficients in electron-beam irradiated EVA

films increased, and the solubility coefficients decreased. The chain scission in EVA

films caused by irradiation possibly resulted in the increase of the diffusion coefficient.

Marque

al. (1995) detected alkyl radicals after ionization treatment of PP at

40 kGy. Rojas De Gante and Pascat (1990) reported that hydroperoxides and carbonyl

compounds such as ketones and aldehydes were formed after irradiation of LDPE and

OPP

25 kGy). El Makhzoumi (1 994) reported that irradiation formed

different

volatile compounds from PET, PE, and OPP films.

Ground beef patties were packaged in air with nylodpolyethylene bags, Saran1

polyesterlpolyethylene bags, and Saran film ovenvrap plus a styrofoam tray. Samples

were irradiated at 2 kGy by either gamma rays or an electron beam, and evaluated by

a trained sensory panel for seven flavors, three mouthfeels, and seven taste attributes.

No differences were detected among the packaging materials used (Lopez-Gonzalez

al., 2000).

Pulsed

light

Plastic packaging materials that cannot tolerate autoclave temperatures are prohibited

ftom use for pulsed-light sterilization. The resistance to heat of PVC make it the pre-

ferred packaging material for pulsed light (Katz, 1999).

The use of pulsed light as a secondary treatment to sterilize packaging materials is

disclosed in the US Patent 5,925,885, assigned to Purepulse Technologies, Inc. Pulsed

light inactivates micro-organisms on packaging materials used for aseptic packaging

processing methods (Katz, 1999).

Future research

The degradation of flavor compounds can occur not only by oxidation but also by the

permeation of the flavor compounds through packaging materials, and the absorption

of the compounds into the packaging materials. A greater absorption rate is found if

Packaging for non-thermal food processing

495

the flavor compound has a similar chemical structure or a similar polarity to the func-

tional groups in the packaging materials (Landois-Garza and Hotchkiss, 1987). As an

example, more d-limonene and a-pinene (volatile flavor compounds of orange juice)

are absorbed more easily in LDPE than in PET, PVDC or EVOH. LDPE absorbs more

d-limonene and a-pinene than the other materials because the non-polar hydrocarbon

of LDPE has a strong affinity to the non-polar terpene hydrocarbons of the flavor

compounds (Sheung, 1995). Many researchers have investigated the absorption and

diffusion phenomena of flavor compounds of foods packaged in various food packag-

ing materials (Baner et al., 199 1

;

Ikegarni et al., 199 1

;

Nielsen et al., 1992; Van Willige

et al., 2000). To reduce the absorption of the fresh flavor compounds of foods, a pack-

aging material with low difisivity and solubility for the fresh flavor compounds

should be used.

As consumers demand more non-thermally processed foods, the opportunities for

active packaging may increase. The use of active packaging would be effective in

retarding the degradation of the "fresh-like quality" of non-thermally processed foods

during storage. Modified atmosphere packaging

(MAP)

can be applied to control oxy-

gen in the headspace by reducing the oxidation degradation of foods. MAP limits the

oxygen in the headspace by reducing the oxygen or replacing the air with a controlled

mixture of gases such as nitrogen and carbon dioxide (Robertson, 1993).

MAP

inte-

grated with aseptic packaging has been used in minimally processed refrigerated

foods (Brody, 1996). MAP reduces the growth rate of aerobic micro-organisms, and

extends the product's shelf life. However, MAP can selectively change the microbiol-

ogy of foods. The aerobic spoilage micro-organisms' growth will decrease, which will

then provide sufficient time for the growth of pathogenic micro-organisms, especially

if the MAP foods have received a non-sterilizing treatment (Hotchkiss and Banco,

1992; Marth, 1998). Other active packaging techniques such as antimicrobial pack-

aging, incorporating antimicrobial agents into packaging systems, also provide better

packaging for non-thermally processed foods. These combinations must not reduce

food safety while they improve food quality, which is demanded by consumers.

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